Guatemala es un país en la región del sur de la centroamérica. Centroamérica está en el hemisferio del norte cerca del ecaudor.
La frontera de Guatemala, del norte al oeste, es México. Belize, el golfo de Honduras, Honduras y el Salvador están al este. También al sudoeste y el sur de Gautemala está el Océano Pacífica.
Tolimán, una montaña cerca del lago de Atitlan, y Volcán Tajamulco son en los altiplanos. Este país tiene dos cadenas de montañas. Sierra de las Minas, en el este, es una cordillera pequeña. Altiplanos en el sur empiezan en el oeste y crucan la frontera del este. El petén es trópico y tiene las selvas de lluvia. Los altiplanos son templado de 60º-70º. Las tierras bajas de Pacífica hace calor y son húmido.
Porque su geografía y su clima, los productos principales son el café, el azúcar y las bananas. La industría forestal, el azúcar y las ropas son las industrias principales. Guatemala declararon independencía de España en el 15 de septiembre de 1821. Muchas dictadores fueron regida despues independencía. Ahora el gobierno es una república con una cabinet, un congreso de la república, y el corte suprema de justicia.
El clima comódo y vistas bonitas de las montañas, los volcanos, las selvas, y los ríos y lagos atraen muy turistas todo el año. Lago de Atitlan, Quiche de Chichicastenango, las ruinas de los mayas de Tikal, y la ciudad de Guatemala dice que Belize pertenece a ellos. ¡¡Tiene once millones personas en su población anque es mas pequeño del estado de E.E.U.U.!! También, su capital anterior,(Antigua,) demolerió en unos temblores de tierra.
Guatemala tiene una cultura rica y mucho historía. Es un lugar bonito y perfecto a visitar en vacación.
Sometime with rudeness 'n' Sometime with love..... Sometime with perception 'n' Sometime with surprise... Sometime with worry 'n' Sometime with Hope... Life goes on.........
Thursday, September 27, 2012
Gorbachev and Perestroika
The history of the Soviet Union is complicated and fascinating. In the course of only seventy
years this country has seen the development of the totally new system of state, economic growth, the
growth of hopes for the "brighter future", and then the sudden and expected by no one collapse of
the whole system leading to chaos, wars, and confusion. One period is especially important in order
to realize how did things finally started to change after the seventy years of blindly pursuing the
dream of communism which left the Soviet Union in a very bad economical and moral state, and this
period is called perestroika, Russian for restructuring. The main figure behind this process which
began in 1985 is Mikhail S. Gorbachev who became General Secretary of the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union Central Committee in March 1985. The three books that concentrate on the
"Gorbachev phenomenon" were all unfortunately written before perestroika was finished, so they do
not analyze the consequences that it had for the Soviet Union as well as for the whole world . On
the other hand, all three of these books do a good job in explaining the changes that took place in
the course of the first three years after Gorbachev came to power and why were these changes
necessary.
The first book "Gorbachev" was written by Zhores A. Medvedev in 1986 and hence the
author is concentrating on the first year of the new course in Soviet history. The book itself basically
consists of two parts: the first part where the author describes the "making of a General Secretary",
and the second part entitled "Gorbachev in power" which describes Gorbachev's first year in the
office. The first part of the book gives a lot of background information which allows the reader to
see the stages in development of the Soviet leader from childhood and youth to second-in-
command. One thing I found to be particularly interesting in Medvedev's description of Gorbachev's
youth and that is the theory that living with a Czech intellectual for five years changed the future
Soviet leader in such a way that he became more "westernized" which "indirectly provided the Soviet
Union with a new style leader". Medvedev says that during the time from 1950 to 1955 when young
Gorbachev attended the Moscow State University and had to share the room with a Czech student
Zdenek Mlynar he was "profoundly influenced" by the "culture and attitudes of a traditionally
Western nation". This influence lasted for years and the fact that Gorbachev has become
"westernized" in his appearance, manners, dress and the "image he projects of tolerance and cordial
behavior, all the small signs which mark him as different from the usual Komsomol and Party boss",
is according to Medvedev due to a great extent to the fact that Mlynar was Gorbachev's roommate
(Medvedev, 1986, p. 43).
Although the first part of the book is certainly interesting and important I would like to
concentrate on the second part of the book since it is directly deals with the subject that interests me
most, that is the years when Gorbachev was in power and the development of the new course in the
Soviet life called perestroika. From just reading the first paragraph it is obvious that the author
approves of the new leader. Medvedev writes: "For the first time in Soviet history, the leadership
succession has meant more than the arrival of a new leader and the possibility of the implementation
of the new policies. The Gorbachev succession marks the appearance of a new political generation
which differs from the old guard in style, knowledge and historical vision....Gorbachev represents a
younger post-war political generation, a generation which started its professional Party or state
career during the more liberal Krushchev era" (p. 165). Medvedev quotes some of the very
enthusiastic Western newspaper comments which called Gorbachev a "bright, incisive, brisk-
mannered man", with "high intelligence, considerable organizational abilities, political acumen".
According to the author no previous Soviet leader had received so much immediate publicity and
such an enthusiastic welcome from the general public. "Gorbachev's popularity was closely linked to
his energetic, charismatic, competent and obviously intelligent personality", says Medvedev which
led to this immediate acceptance of Gorbachev as leader (p. 183). Inspite the fact that Gorbachev's
new style was popular, some of his methods found less favor. A lot of his actions were purely
administrative, imposed from above without any discussion and seemed coercive and disciplinarian
to some people, especially to intellectuals who expected liberalism. Medvedev seems to justify
Gorbachev's first decrees since they were "not designed to impress intellectuals, but rather aimed at
improving a sick economy" (p. 184).
It was very interesting to read about the "battle against the bottle" which Gorbachev started
immediately. For him vodka was a "public enemy number one", the cause of increasing crime, poor
productivity, an increasing number of problem children of alcoholic parents, reduced life expectancy
and alcohol-related health problems, all of which created a heavy burden on the national economy.
Some of the measures that were taken by the government were increasing the drinking age from 18
to 21, alcohol could no longer be sold in ordinary food stores, special wine shops would not be
permitted to sell any alcohol before 2 PM, stiff sentences were introduced for private stills. But the
anti-alcohol campaign quickly has became unpopular and "has created a degree of social tension"
which led to the canceling of the whole campaign by the government (p. 189).
During his first year Gorbachev made some big changes in the agricultural sector of the
Soviet Union. The decision was made to allocate annually from one million to one million two
hundred thousand allotments to citizens. Medvedev sees this decision as "Gorbachev's second
personal initiative which had a real practical and positive impact on the quality of people's lives. The
garden co-operatives reduced the pressure slightly on state retail sales of vegetables and fruit,
particularly in small towns" (p. 201).
As for the domestic policy, according to Medvedev, Gorbachev's first year in power was
marked by "unprecedently large changes in the personnel of the Politburo and government and the
rapid formulation of economic targets and methods of economic development for the next 15 years.
In all other respects, however, the changes in domestic policy were merely cosmetic" (p. 208).
Policies were better presented, the style was more modern, but there was little in the contents.
Gorbachev has introduced very few social and political changes in his first year in office. Medvedev
argues that this was due to the fact that Gorbachev, as a professional Party official understood that
liberalization or democratization may turn against him (which is exactly how everything worked out
some five years later, but of course Medvedev did not know this for sure back in 1986). Also
Gorbachev's new team had absolutely no desire to make the system more liberal.
In the last chapter Medvedev talks about Soviet new diplomacy which was created by
Gorbachev in his first year in the office. First of all, Gorbachev's charm, sense of humor, prompt
responses, attempts to find convincing arguments "suddenly introduced the human factor into East-
West confrontation which in itself served to reduce tension. Gorbachev clearly did not resemble a
person who was waiting for the opportunity to drop a nuclear bomb on the West" (p. 228). For
Gorbachev two main issues were the problem of the arms race and Afghanistan, where the war had
gone for two long and there was no end in sight. Gorbachev wanted to accelerate economic
development and the main task of his diplomacy was the reduction of the cost of the foreign policy
and that meant substantial arms reductions. In his book Medvedev makes an assumption that the
Soviet government would not withdraw its troops from Afghanistan and Gorbachev will be aiming
for a "quick military end to the war" - assumption that proved to be wrong . On the other hand the
author is right when he predicts the gradual thawing of the Soviet-US relations, thawing that started
in Geneva with Reagan-Gorbachev negotiations and continued throughout Gorbachev's rule.
In his conclusion Medvedev makes a statement that "it has been abundantly clear that
Gorbachev is neither a liberal nor a bold reformist. He prefers small modifications, administrative
methods and economic adjustments to structural reform ... it is a mistake to expect too much from
Gorbachev" (p. 245). This statement, as we all know, quickly proved to be wrong.
The second book titled "The Gorbachev Phenomenon" was written by Moshe Lewin in
1988, two years after Medvedev published his work and therefore it gives the reader a better
perspective on what happened while Gorbachev was in power. Lewin's book is structured very
similar to the first book that I described above. It also consists of the two parts: one deals with the
history of the Soviet Union before 1985, and the second part, entitled "The New Course" discusses
the changes that took place in the country after Gorbachev became the General Secretary.
Right from the start the author says that the Soviet Union is on the "verge of important
changes in the way it conducts its affairs, maybe in the way it is run ... Russia is now entering a
crucial new stage and is therefore, in many respects, just a beginner" (Lewin, 1988, p. 1). Lewin
follows Medvedev's steps in describing the new Soviet leader and uses all kinds of approving terms
such as "bright", "intelligent" and "incisive". But unlike Medvedev Lewin makes an argument that the
main reason for perestroika was not the individualism of Gorbachev but rather the crisis that had
been created by the mechanisms of economic management that had emerged in the 1930's and were
still powerful. He also talks about the enormous role of the people who were "placing pressure on
the governing model, insisting that each sphere of action receive the attention it needed and that new
institutions and new methods be created to serve the new social forms. The system needed to
loosen up" (p. 112). The answer to people's pressure Gorbachev began his new line which was
characterized by an appeal for frankness. The leaders were ready to face the truth and report to the
country that the system was in a bad shape. This was particularly true about the economy. As the
Party Congress put it : "The production relations that exist currently, the system of husbanding and
managing, emerged, in substance, in conditions of extensive economic development. Gradually they
became obsolete, lost their stimulating power and turned, in many ways, into a hindrance" (p. 115).
This new line did not stop with criticisms of the management of the economy. Ideology and
ideological life were also described as being in shambles. The leaders admitted that Soviet people
did not believe official statements and ideological dogma was a powerful obstacle to the country's
development. This was the beginning of the new page in the history of the Soviet Union which
became known all over the world as glasnost.
Together with the appeal for glasnost - a slogan but also a pledge to ease censorship and
facilitate the access to information - there was a call for uskorenie, a "speeding up of the pace of
economic development, especially technological progress". Lewin can not comprehend how some
Western observers can still claim that nothing really happens, that "there is no well-defined program,
notably for economic reforms". Such statements are "sheer obstinacy", according to the author since
ideas for change are being debated, implemented, and tested. And the fact that no comprehensive
program has been announced seems rather as a good sign to Lewin, since "for what single program
could fill the bill?" (p. 116-117).
As against Medvedev, Lewin does not spend much time describing "the battle against the
bottle". He sums everything up in one sentence instead of two chapters and has a different view of
the successfulness of this initiative: "Although many predicted failure, the government stuck to its
guns, gained public support for its aims and the anti-drinking campaign has achieved some success.
This was clever and promising opening" (p. 116).
Lewin's conclusions about the changes in the agricultural sector and foreign policy are very
similar to that of Medvedev. The author talks about how the center would ease its control, how
government would give more freedom in the choices that people involved in producing the
agricultural goods can have. Lewin underlined the importance of Gorbachev's decision to allocate
allotments which led to the bigger interest of the Soviet people in working the land which ultimately
led to the increase in agricultural production. Lewin also mentions the better Russian-American
relations which was due to the fact that Gorbachev was ready for discussions with the American
president and has chosen such international policy that led to the slowing down of the arms race and
the reduction of the accumulation of arms.
As for the domestic policy Lewin has a different position than Medvedev, this is due to a
large extent to the fact that Lewin is writing his work two years after Medvedev. "Glasnost,
democratization, self-government in the workplace, orientation to the social sphere, social justice,
human rights, and respect for human individuality" - reforms in these areas took place after three
years of Gorbachev in power and influenced domestic policy a lot according to Lewin (p. 119).
At the very end of the book Lewin makes a statement that proved to be so true after the
couple of years since this work was published. "The old system is still in place and its supporters,
deeply disturbed by the perestroika, will certainly resist change. The reformers are not assured of
victory: they will have to fight hard for it, go for bold new moves. Their failure would be terribly
costly for the USSR and could well produce negative repercussions worldwide. The world is now
watching Moscow attentively and with good reason" (p. 153). It is hard to believe that these words
were written eight years ago....
The third book is probably the most important one since it is the work of the man who is
directly responsible for the changes that took place in the Soviet Union and who is also responsible,
although indirectly, for the changes that took place in the whole Eastern Europe. Gorbachev wrote a
book entitled "Perestroika. New Thinking for Our Country and the World" back in 1987, two years
after he became the new Soviet leader. In this book the author tries to answer the question of what
is perestroika? Why does the Soviet society need it? What are its substance and objectives? What
does it reject and what does it create? How is it proceeding and what might be its consequences for
the Soviet Union and the world community? In other words, all the questions that were raised and
discussed by Medvedev and Lewin but answered by the originator.
Perestroika, according to Gorbachev, is an "urgent necessity arising from the profound
processes of development in our socialist society. This society is ripe for change. It has been long
yearning for it" (Gorbachev, 1987, p. 17). Perestroika was caused by all sorts of problems that the
Soviet Union had accumulated over the seventy years. First factor was a slowing economic growth
which caused "a country that was once quickly closing on the world's advanced nations began to
lose one position after another". At the same time the gap in the efficiency of production, quality of
products, scientific and technological development ... began to widen, and not to our advantage".
All this eventually led to an economic deadlock and stagnation that paralyzed Soviet society.
Declining rates of growth affected other aspects of the Soviet life, for instance the social sphere,
which began to lag behind other spheres in terms of technological development, personnel, know-
how and quality of work. Gorbachev also mentions a gradual erosion of the ideological and moral
values of Soviet people as another argument for the need of restructuring. People did not believe in
the government because of the many promises that it made and never accomplished; because the
needs and opinions of ordinary working people, of the public at large, were ignored. There was a
process of decay in public morals; "the great feeling of solidarity with each other that was forged
during the heroic times of the Revolution, the first five-year plans, the Great Patriotic War and
postwar rehabilitation was weakening" (p. 21-22). Gorbachev also talks about alcoholism, drug
addiction and culture alien to Soviet people, which "bred vulgarity and low tastes and brought about
ideological bareness". This statement about "alien to us" culture reminded me of how this fight
against "degeneration" which American movies and other media brings was carried out - how people
were hiding the fact that they have the VCR, how it would be almost impossible to get a videotape
with an American movie but people would still manage to get it "through a friend of a friend" and
then watch it, which as Gorbachev puts it "bred vulgarity and low tastes". Considering all the
problems the government made "the only logical conclusion" that the country was verging on crisis.
This conclusion was announced at the April 1985 Plenary Meeting of the Central Committee, "which
inaugurated the new strategy of perestroika and formulated its basic principles" (p. 24).
Gorbachev gives a plan of perestroika, its component parts which include: overcoming the
stagnation process, breaking down the braking mechanism. It means mass initiative. "It is the
comprehensive development of democracy, socialist self-government, encouragement of initiative,
improved order and discipline, more glasnost, criticism in all spheres of the society; respect for the
individual". Perestroika is also the intensification of the Soviet economy, development of the
principles of democratic centralism and encouragement of socialist enterprise. It also means "the
elimination from society of the distortions of socialist ethics, implementation of the principles of social
justice. It means the unity of words and deeds, rights and duties". But Gorbachev does not forget
to include Lenin and says that "the essence of perestroika lies in the fact that it unites socialism with
democracy and revives the Leninist concept of socialist construction both in theory and in practice"
(p.34-35).
Gorbachev also gives his evaluation of perestroika. He is writing this book two and a half
years after the new line was launched and his assessment is as follows: "perestroika is just getting of
the ground. So far we have only been shaping the mechanisms of acceleration" (p. 64). The real
work for him is still ahead and the main task is to get the whole society involved in the process of
restructuring.
In conclusion Gorbachev spends a lot of time talking about "new political thinking", new
Soviet foreign policy which should benefit international relations, especially Soviet-American
relations and provide for "nuclear-free, non-violent world". The main task of the Soviet foreign
policy is to move "from suspicion and hostility to confidence, from a balance of fear to a balance of
reason and goodwill, from narrow nationalist egoism to cooperation" (p. 254). Gorbachev feels that
the not only the Soviet Union but the whole world needs restructuring, a fundamental change - this,
of course, does not come as a surprise, if we remember that since 1917 first Bolsheviks and than
communists wanted to make this "fundamental change".
The three books that were discussed above were all written by different authors and in
different times but still basically they all have the same approach. Medvedev and Lewin both
approve the new leader of the Soviet Union and give all kinds of good adjectives to describe him
such as "bright" and "intelligent". They both are optimistic about the future of the country although
make it clear that this is only a beginning of the story to follow and since the perestroika just started
at the time they were writing their works they can only speculate about what would happen to the
country. As for Gorbachev he is probably the most optimistic about the new line which is not
surprising since he is the leader and leaders should radiate with confidence. He is also the best
source for finding out what perestroika is all about, its goals and its origins. Of course now in 1996
many of his statements sound unfounded, even funny but when we read his work we have to keep in
mind that back in 1985 Gorbachev's ideas sounded new and revolutionary, destined to change the
Soviet Union and even the whole world - which did in fact happen.
The question whether Gorbachev's perestroika was a failure or a success does not have an
easy immediate answer. Some scholars argue that the reforms that lasted from 1985 to 1990
caused the collapse of the Soviet Union, leaving the country on the verge of crisis, with economy in
chaos and no certain future. Joan E. Spero, the author of the book "The Politics Of International
Economic Relations", is the supporter of this point of view. In the chapter entitled "The Failure of
Perestroika" she shows by using different examples, such as economical progress, stability of the
country and so on, that Gorbachev failed to achive the objectives of perestroika (Spero, 1996,
p336). Although I agree that Gorbachev did not achieve some of the goals stated in his book
"Perestroika", I believe that perestroka was a success to a certain extent. First of all, he did achieve
some of the objectives. For instance, after the reforms the society did become more open thanks to
glasnost. People for the first time since 1917 could say what they really thought and not what was
"good for the party". People also gained access to all sorts of information which was previously
denied to them. Children in schools and students in colleges could finally learn the history as it was
and not as it was seen by the Communist party. Another major success of perestroika was the
increasing openness of the country to the West which led to a considerable improvements in East-
West relations. This also led to the gradual reduction of arms and considerable decline in defense
spending in the Soviet Union as well as in the United States. Considering these and other positive
results of perestroika I would have to disagree with those people who say that it was a complete
failure. The restructuring that took place in the Soviet Union has many dimensions - some are
positive, some are negative. One-sided view which Joan E. Spero and other scholars advocate is
not correct, since it concentrates only on the adverse effects of perestroika, completely ignoring all
the positive effects that it had.
years this country has seen the development of the totally new system of state, economic growth, the
growth of hopes for the "brighter future", and then the sudden and expected by no one collapse of
the whole system leading to chaos, wars, and confusion. One period is especially important in order
to realize how did things finally started to change after the seventy years of blindly pursuing the
dream of communism which left the Soviet Union in a very bad economical and moral state, and this
period is called perestroika, Russian for restructuring. The main figure behind this process which
began in 1985 is Mikhail S. Gorbachev who became General Secretary of the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union Central Committee in March 1985. The three books that concentrate on the
"Gorbachev phenomenon" were all unfortunately written before perestroika was finished, so they do
not analyze the consequences that it had for the Soviet Union as well as for the whole world . On
the other hand, all three of these books do a good job in explaining the changes that took place in
the course of the first three years after Gorbachev came to power and why were these changes
necessary.
The first book "Gorbachev" was written by Zhores A. Medvedev in 1986 and hence the
author is concentrating on the first year of the new course in Soviet history. The book itself basically
consists of two parts: the first part where the author describes the "making of a General Secretary",
and the second part entitled "Gorbachev in power" which describes Gorbachev's first year in the
office. The first part of the book gives a lot of background information which allows the reader to
see the stages in development of the Soviet leader from childhood and youth to second-in-
command. One thing I found to be particularly interesting in Medvedev's description of Gorbachev's
youth and that is the theory that living with a Czech intellectual for five years changed the future
Soviet leader in such a way that he became more "westernized" which "indirectly provided the Soviet
Union with a new style leader". Medvedev says that during the time from 1950 to 1955 when young
Gorbachev attended the Moscow State University and had to share the room with a Czech student
Zdenek Mlynar he was "profoundly influenced" by the "culture and attitudes of a traditionally
Western nation". This influence lasted for years and the fact that Gorbachev has become
"westernized" in his appearance, manners, dress and the "image he projects of tolerance and cordial
behavior, all the small signs which mark him as different from the usual Komsomol and Party boss",
is according to Medvedev due to a great extent to the fact that Mlynar was Gorbachev's roommate
(Medvedev, 1986, p. 43).
Although the first part of the book is certainly interesting and important I would like to
concentrate on the second part of the book since it is directly deals with the subject that interests me
most, that is the years when Gorbachev was in power and the development of the new course in the
Soviet life called perestroika. From just reading the first paragraph it is obvious that the author
approves of the new leader. Medvedev writes: "For the first time in Soviet history, the leadership
succession has meant more than the arrival of a new leader and the possibility of the implementation
of the new policies. The Gorbachev succession marks the appearance of a new political generation
which differs from the old guard in style, knowledge and historical vision....Gorbachev represents a
younger post-war political generation, a generation which started its professional Party or state
career during the more liberal Krushchev era" (p. 165). Medvedev quotes some of the very
enthusiastic Western newspaper comments which called Gorbachev a "bright, incisive, brisk-
mannered man", with "high intelligence, considerable organizational abilities, political acumen".
According to the author no previous Soviet leader had received so much immediate publicity and
such an enthusiastic welcome from the general public. "Gorbachev's popularity was closely linked to
his energetic, charismatic, competent and obviously intelligent personality", says Medvedev which
led to this immediate acceptance of Gorbachev as leader (p. 183). Inspite the fact that Gorbachev's
new style was popular, some of his methods found less favor. A lot of his actions were purely
administrative, imposed from above without any discussion and seemed coercive and disciplinarian
to some people, especially to intellectuals who expected liberalism. Medvedev seems to justify
Gorbachev's first decrees since they were "not designed to impress intellectuals, but rather aimed at
improving a sick economy" (p. 184).
It was very interesting to read about the "battle against the bottle" which Gorbachev started
immediately. For him vodka was a "public enemy number one", the cause of increasing crime, poor
productivity, an increasing number of problem children of alcoholic parents, reduced life expectancy
and alcohol-related health problems, all of which created a heavy burden on the national economy.
Some of the measures that were taken by the government were increasing the drinking age from 18
to 21, alcohol could no longer be sold in ordinary food stores, special wine shops would not be
permitted to sell any alcohol before 2 PM, stiff sentences were introduced for private stills. But the
anti-alcohol campaign quickly has became unpopular and "has created a degree of social tension"
which led to the canceling of the whole campaign by the government (p. 189).
During his first year Gorbachev made some big changes in the agricultural sector of the
Soviet Union. The decision was made to allocate annually from one million to one million two
hundred thousand allotments to citizens. Medvedev sees this decision as "Gorbachev's second
personal initiative which had a real practical and positive impact on the quality of people's lives. The
garden co-operatives reduced the pressure slightly on state retail sales of vegetables and fruit,
particularly in small towns" (p. 201).
As for the domestic policy, according to Medvedev, Gorbachev's first year in power was
marked by "unprecedently large changes in the personnel of the Politburo and government and the
rapid formulation of economic targets and methods of economic development for the next 15 years.
In all other respects, however, the changes in domestic policy were merely cosmetic" (p. 208).
Policies were better presented, the style was more modern, but there was little in the contents.
Gorbachev has introduced very few social and political changes in his first year in office. Medvedev
argues that this was due to the fact that Gorbachev, as a professional Party official understood that
liberalization or democratization may turn against him (which is exactly how everything worked out
some five years later, but of course Medvedev did not know this for sure back in 1986). Also
Gorbachev's new team had absolutely no desire to make the system more liberal.
In the last chapter Medvedev talks about Soviet new diplomacy which was created by
Gorbachev in his first year in the office. First of all, Gorbachev's charm, sense of humor, prompt
responses, attempts to find convincing arguments "suddenly introduced the human factor into East-
West confrontation which in itself served to reduce tension. Gorbachev clearly did not resemble a
person who was waiting for the opportunity to drop a nuclear bomb on the West" (p. 228). For
Gorbachev two main issues were the problem of the arms race and Afghanistan, where the war had
gone for two long and there was no end in sight. Gorbachev wanted to accelerate economic
development and the main task of his diplomacy was the reduction of the cost of the foreign policy
and that meant substantial arms reductions. In his book Medvedev makes an assumption that the
Soviet government would not withdraw its troops from Afghanistan and Gorbachev will be aiming
for a "quick military end to the war" - assumption that proved to be wrong . On the other hand the
author is right when he predicts the gradual thawing of the Soviet-US relations, thawing that started
in Geneva with Reagan-Gorbachev negotiations and continued throughout Gorbachev's rule.
In his conclusion Medvedev makes a statement that "it has been abundantly clear that
Gorbachev is neither a liberal nor a bold reformist. He prefers small modifications, administrative
methods and economic adjustments to structural reform ... it is a mistake to expect too much from
Gorbachev" (p. 245). This statement, as we all know, quickly proved to be wrong.
The second book titled "The Gorbachev Phenomenon" was written by Moshe Lewin in
1988, two years after Medvedev published his work and therefore it gives the reader a better
perspective on what happened while Gorbachev was in power. Lewin's book is structured very
similar to the first book that I described above. It also consists of the two parts: one deals with the
history of the Soviet Union before 1985, and the second part, entitled "The New Course" discusses
the changes that took place in the country after Gorbachev became the General Secretary.
Right from the start the author says that the Soviet Union is on the "verge of important
changes in the way it conducts its affairs, maybe in the way it is run ... Russia is now entering a
crucial new stage and is therefore, in many respects, just a beginner" (Lewin, 1988, p. 1). Lewin
follows Medvedev's steps in describing the new Soviet leader and uses all kinds of approving terms
such as "bright", "intelligent" and "incisive". But unlike Medvedev Lewin makes an argument that the
main reason for perestroika was not the individualism of Gorbachev but rather the crisis that had
been created by the mechanisms of economic management that had emerged in the 1930's and were
still powerful. He also talks about the enormous role of the people who were "placing pressure on
the governing model, insisting that each sphere of action receive the attention it needed and that new
institutions and new methods be created to serve the new social forms. The system needed to
loosen up" (p. 112). The answer to people's pressure Gorbachev began his new line which was
characterized by an appeal for frankness. The leaders were ready to face the truth and report to the
country that the system was in a bad shape. This was particularly true about the economy. As the
Party Congress put it : "The production relations that exist currently, the system of husbanding and
managing, emerged, in substance, in conditions of extensive economic development. Gradually they
became obsolete, lost their stimulating power and turned, in many ways, into a hindrance" (p. 115).
This new line did not stop with criticisms of the management of the economy. Ideology and
ideological life were also described as being in shambles. The leaders admitted that Soviet people
did not believe official statements and ideological dogma was a powerful obstacle to the country's
development. This was the beginning of the new page in the history of the Soviet Union which
became known all over the world as glasnost.
Together with the appeal for glasnost - a slogan but also a pledge to ease censorship and
facilitate the access to information - there was a call for uskorenie, a "speeding up of the pace of
economic development, especially technological progress". Lewin can not comprehend how some
Western observers can still claim that nothing really happens, that "there is no well-defined program,
notably for economic reforms". Such statements are "sheer obstinacy", according to the author since
ideas for change are being debated, implemented, and tested. And the fact that no comprehensive
program has been announced seems rather as a good sign to Lewin, since "for what single program
could fill the bill?" (p. 116-117).
As against Medvedev, Lewin does not spend much time describing "the battle against the
bottle". He sums everything up in one sentence instead of two chapters and has a different view of
the successfulness of this initiative: "Although many predicted failure, the government stuck to its
guns, gained public support for its aims and the anti-drinking campaign has achieved some success.
This was clever and promising opening" (p. 116).
Lewin's conclusions about the changes in the agricultural sector and foreign policy are very
similar to that of Medvedev. The author talks about how the center would ease its control, how
government would give more freedom in the choices that people involved in producing the
agricultural goods can have. Lewin underlined the importance of Gorbachev's decision to allocate
allotments which led to the bigger interest of the Soviet people in working the land which ultimately
led to the increase in agricultural production. Lewin also mentions the better Russian-American
relations which was due to the fact that Gorbachev was ready for discussions with the American
president and has chosen such international policy that led to the slowing down of the arms race and
the reduction of the accumulation of arms.
As for the domestic policy Lewin has a different position than Medvedev, this is due to a
large extent to the fact that Lewin is writing his work two years after Medvedev. "Glasnost,
democratization, self-government in the workplace, orientation to the social sphere, social justice,
human rights, and respect for human individuality" - reforms in these areas took place after three
years of Gorbachev in power and influenced domestic policy a lot according to Lewin (p. 119).
At the very end of the book Lewin makes a statement that proved to be so true after the
couple of years since this work was published. "The old system is still in place and its supporters,
deeply disturbed by the perestroika, will certainly resist change. The reformers are not assured of
victory: they will have to fight hard for it, go for bold new moves. Their failure would be terribly
costly for the USSR and could well produce negative repercussions worldwide. The world is now
watching Moscow attentively and with good reason" (p. 153). It is hard to believe that these words
were written eight years ago....
The third book is probably the most important one since it is the work of the man who is
directly responsible for the changes that took place in the Soviet Union and who is also responsible,
although indirectly, for the changes that took place in the whole Eastern Europe. Gorbachev wrote a
book entitled "Perestroika. New Thinking for Our Country and the World" back in 1987, two years
after he became the new Soviet leader. In this book the author tries to answer the question of what
is perestroika? Why does the Soviet society need it? What are its substance and objectives? What
does it reject and what does it create? How is it proceeding and what might be its consequences for
the Soviet Union and the world community? In other words, all the questions that were raised and
discussed by Medvedev and Lewin but answered by the originator.
Perestroika, according to Gorbachev, is an "urgent necessity arising from the profound
processes of development in our socialist society. This society is ripe for change. It has been long
yearning for it" (Gorbachev, 1987, p. 17). Perestroika was caused by all sorts of problems that the
Soviet Union had accumulated over the seventy years. First factor was a slowing economic growth
which caused "a country that was once quickly closing on the world's advanced nations began to
lose one position after another". At the same time the gap in the efficiency of production, quality of
products, scientific and technological development ... began to widen, and not to our advantage".
All this eventually led to an economic deadlock and stagnation that paralyzed Soviet society.
Declining rates of growth affected other aspects of the Soviet life, for instance the social sphere,
which began to lag behind other spheres in terms of technological development, personnel, know-
how and quality of work. Gorbachev also mentions a gradual erosion of the ideological and moral
values of Soviet people as another argument for the need of restructuring. People did not believe in
the government because of the many promises that it made and never accomplished; because the
needs and opinions of ordinary working people, of the public at large, were ignored. There was a
process of decay in public morals; "the great feeling of solidarity with each other that was forged
during the heroic times of the Revolution, the first five-year plans, the Great Patriotic War and
postwar rehabilitation was weakening" (p. 21-22). Gorbachev also talks about alcoholism, drug
addiction and culture alien to Soviet people, which "bred vulgarity and low tastes and brought about
ideological bareness". This statement about "alien to us" culture reminded me of how this fight
against "degeneration" which American movies and other media brings was carried out - how people
were hiding the fact that they have the VCR, how it would be almost impossible to get a videotape
with an American movie but people would still manage to get it "through a friend of a friend" and
then watch it, which as Gorbachev puts it "bred vulgarity and low tastes". Considering all the
problems the government made "the only logical conclusion" that the country was verging on crisis.
This conclusion was announced at the April 1985 Plenary Meeting of the Central Committee, "which
inaugurated the new strategy of perestroika and formulated its basic principles" (p. 24).
Gorbachev gives a plan of perestroika, its component parts which include: overcoming the
stagnation process, breaking down the braking mechanism. It means mass initiative. "It is the
comprehensive development of democracy, socialist self-government, encouragement of initiative,
improved order and discipline, more glasnost, criticism in all spheres of the society; respect for the
individual". Perestroika is also the intensification of the Soviet economy, development of the
principles of democratic centralism and encouragement of socialist enterprise. It also means "the
elimination from society of the distortions of socialist ethics, implementation of the principles of social
justice. It means the unity of words and deeds, rights and duties". But Gorbachev does not forget
to include Lenin and says that "the essence of perestroika lies in the fact that it unites socialism with
democracy and revives the Leninist concept of socialist construction both in theory and in practice"
(p.34-35).
Gorbachev also gives his evaluation of perestroika. He is writing this book two and a half
years after the new line was launched and his assessment is as follows: "perestroika is just getting of
the ground. So far we have only been shaping the mechanisms of acceleration" (p. 64). The real
work for him is still ahead and the main task is to get the whole society involved in the process of
restructuring.
In conclusion Gorbachev spends a lot of time talking about "new political thinking", new
Soviet foreign policy which should benefit international relations, especially Soviet-American
relations and provide for "nuclear-free, non-violent world". The main task of the Soviet foreign
policy is to move "from suspicion and hostility to confidence, from a balance of fear to a balance of
reason and goodwill, from narrow nationalist egoism to cooperation" (p. 254). Gorbachev feels that
the not only the Soviet Union but the whole world needs restructuring, a fundamental change - this,
of course, does not come as a surprise, if we remember that since 1917 first Bolsheviks and than
communists wanted to make this "fundamental change".
The three books that were discussed above were all written by different authors and in
different times but still basically they all have the same approach. Medvedev and Lewin both
approve the new leader of the Soviet Union and give all kinds of good adjectives to describe him
such as "bright" and "intelligent". They both are optimistic about the future of the country although
make it clear that this is only a beginning of the story to follow and since the perestroika just started
at the time they were writing their works they can only speculate about what would happen to the
country. As for Gorbachev he is probably the most optimistic about the new line which is not
surprising since he is the leader and leaders should radiate with confidence. He is also the best
source for finding out what perestroika is all about, its goals and its origins. Of course now in 1996
many of his statements sound unfounded, even funny but when we read his work we have to keep in
mind that back in 1985 Gorbachev's ideas sounded new and revolutionary, destined to change the
Soviet Union and even the whole world - which did in fact happen.
The question whether Gorbachev's perestroika was a failure or a success does not have an
easy immediate answer. Some scholars argue that the reforms that lasted from 1985 to 1990
caused the collapse of the Soviet Union, leaving the country on the verge of crisis, with economy in
chaos and no certain future. Joan E. Spero, the author of the book "The Politics Of International
Economic Relations", is the supporter of this point of view. In the chapter entitled "The Failure of
Perestroika" she shows by using different examples, such as economical progress, stability of the
country and so on, that Gorbachev failed to achive the objectives of perestroika (Spero, 1996,
p336). Although I agree that Gorbachev did not achieve some of the goals stated in his book
"Perestroika", I believe that perestroka was a success to a certain extent. First of all, he did achieve
some of the objectives. For instance, after the reforms the society did become more open thanks to
glasnost. People for the first time since 1917 could say what they really thought and not what was
"good for the party". People also gained access to all sorts of information which was previously
denied to them. Children in schools and students in colleges could finally learn the history as it was
and not as it was seen by the Communist party. Another major success of perestroika was the
increasing openness of the country to the West which led to a considerable improvements in East-
West relations. This also led to the gradual reduction of arms and considerable decline in defense
spending in the Soviet Union as well as in the United States. Considering these and other positive
results of perestroika I would have to disagree with those people who say that it was a complete
failure. The restructuring that took place in the Soviet Union has many dimensions - some are
positive, some are negative. One-sided view which Joan E. Spero and other scholars advocate is
not correct, since it concentrates only on the adverse effects of perestroika, completely ignoring all
the positive effects that it had.
Go Ask Alice
Go Ask Alice
Have you ever had a problem? I'm sure you have because everybody
sometime in there life does. The book I read Go Ask Alice by an anonymous
author is all about problems, conflicts, and how to deal with them.
I would give a lot of information on the author if that was possible, but
the author is anonymous so I can not do so.
From the very first page I had a hunch that this book was about a drug
addiction problem. "SUGAR & SPICE & EVERYTHING NICE; ACID &
SMACK & NO WAY BACK" (page 1). That was a very moving quote for
me. I am not sure exactly why but I guess because it shows how dangerous
drugs can be.
This book is based on a true diary of a young girl who got mixed up in
the drug world.
Alice bought a diary because she had a big secret that she could never
tell any of her friends. It really only ended up being that a boy named Roger
she was in love with stood her up and she would be to embraced to tell her
friends. She makes a big deal out of it, I can already tell she is dramatic.
Her birthday is only five days apart from mine, that is a weird
coincidence.
From September 19 through September 25 she goes on about how
nothing every happens in her life. She does not enjoy her teachers, subjects
and school. She thinks everything is losing interest and everything's dull. I
think she just is going through the "teenager blues".
Julie Brown had a party but she didn't go because she gained seven
whole pounds. I don't think that seven pounds is a big deal.
On September 30th her father was invited to be the "Dean of Political
Science at --------- ". She says that she is gonna become a new person by
time she gets her new house and that it is gonna be so great. Good maybe
now she will quit crying about her dull life. She says that she is gonna
exercise every morning, eat right, clean my skin (what she never had a bath
before), be optimistic, cheerful and positive. Why couldn't she of just done
all that in the house she lived in before she moved.
Sorry I am being so negative, but this girl is a little cry baby and she is
to dramatic.
On October 10th I found out that she has siblings named Tim and
Alexandia that she is gonna stay with while her parents go house hunting.
They bought a Spanish type house and they took pictures. She said it
will take three or four days for the pictures to get back. That kind of gives
you some perspective on the time period because now a days it only take an
hour.
She went on a diet and lost three pounds but her mother will no longer
let her diet because she thinks that it was not healthy for her.
She wishes she could be like her mother someday. She wonders what
it is like to "going all the way" and she wishes she could talk to her mother
about things like that.
So far the conflict has not been stated.
All of Alice's relatives met at her old house for Christmas. Alice felt
wanted. She wishes that she could always feel that way.
They finally got moved in there new house on January fourth.
There she goes again crying about how her first day of school was
miserable and how she gained 15 pounds. She made no friends, nobody
talked to her, and everybody stared at her and made her uncomfortable.
Both of her siblings made friends there own age.
She finally made a friend named Beth. They have a lot of things in
common.
There is only about two months of school left. Gerta is going to a
Jewish camp for the summer and Alice is not having much fun so she
decided that she wants to go to her grandparents for the summer.
She went to her grandparents for the summer. She has been really
bored because all she has been doing is readying books all summer. She has
been reading a book a day. I wish I could read a book a day. It took me
about three weeks to read this one.
She was in town and she ran into Jill Peters who invited her to a party.
Alice has been wanting to be friends with her for a long time.
I 'm a little confused because Alice says that she has always wanted to
be friends with her, but she is at her grandparents house. How can that be
unless her grandparents live near where she used to.
Alice went to the party (July 10th). Jill brought out some glasses of
soda. Alice did not want to look stupid so she followed what everybody else
was doing, sipping the soda. Suddenly her palms started to get sweated,
everybody was starring at her, and the room got quiet. She thought that they
were trying to poison her. A strange feeling swept over her which strangled
her, suffocated her and made her muscles tense. When she opened her eyes
she noticed that it was Bill who had but his arm around her. Bill said "But
don't worry, I'll baby-sit you. This will be a good trip. Come on, relax, enjoy
it, enjoy it." in a slow record like voice set on the wrong speed. Then he
started to kiss her. She heard his voice repeating over and over in a slow
motion echo type voice. Then she started laughing histaricaly and wildly. She
thought of the most funny and absurd thing in the world. Then she saw the
shifting patterns in the ceiling. She laid her head in Bill's lap and watched the
changing patterns and great fields of red, blue and yellow colors. She tried to
share the experience with the others but she couldn't put it in two words and
all she could do is laugh. Trains of thought were coming to her. She
discovered the true language used by Adam and Eve but it slipped out of her
grasp before she could tell about it. She laid down and started to absorb the
music physically. She could feel, smell and see the rhythm of the music. She
felt that she possessed the wisdom of the ages but she could not describe it.
She looked at the magazine on the table and saw it in a hundred dimensions.
She closed her eyes and felt that she was floating in a sphere, in another
world or in another state. Her breathe rushed away from her like she was in a
fast elevator drop. She felt that she was part of the music, table and of the
book. She started to dance in front of the whole group and enjoyed every
second of it. She heard the neighbors breathing and the Jell-O in there
refrigerator next store.
Later Jill told me that there was LSD in the soda that she was drinking.
Wwwwwoooooooooooooowwwwwwwwwww!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!
That was weird!
Now I feel I have reached what is gonna lead into being the conflict;
drug addiction.
She has heard all of the terrifying stories about using drugs but she still
wants to experiment and try pot. Now she thinks that drugs are not bad and
that all the books written about drugs were written by uninformed, ignorant
people like her parents who have never tried it.
That is here whole damn problem. She thinks that drugs are okay, but
there not. They can cause serious damage.
She feels like Alice in Wonderland. She and I wonder if Lewis G.
Carrol was on drugs too.
She went out with Bill. He introduced her to Torpedo's and Speed.
She said it was like she was riding a shooting star but better.
Her grandfather had a heart attack (July 23rd)! He is okay. Alice stayed
home with him and helped help her grandmother help him (what a tongue
twister).
Bill asked her to a party on August 13th. She accepted and tripped at
the party. She said it was better than last time. She sat for hours examining
her hand. Watching the cells and blood vessels.
She also lost her virginity to Bill last night. She sort of regrets it
because she always was gonna wait for Roger. She is scared she might be
pregnant.
Yup, I was right. That was the start to her drug addiction problem.
Roger stopped by. They got to talking and it ends up that Roger is
going to military school. They said they would write each other and then
Roger kissed Alice.
Alice is so mad at her self for sleeping with Bill and not waiting for
Roger.
Before she left she took some of her grandfathers sleeping pills. So if
she wants to get away from her problem she can go to sleep.
She flew home on August 14th and eventually used all the pills so she
got her doctor to prescribe her tranquilizers.
The setting of the story is not listed in the book. Because they can't
publish it without permission. Yes, the setting does play a role in her conflict
because if she would not of went to her grandparents none of this would of
happened.
All is going well in her life for a while, until she meets a girl named
Chris at a boutique downtown.
Her and Chris become friends and she introduced her to hearts
(uppers) because Roger has been to busy to write her anymore and she is
depressed.
She got her a job at the store she worked at.
Chris introduced Alice to her collage friends, Ted and Richie.
Ted (Chris's date) got Alice to smoke pot and hash (September 26). She felt
greater than she ever had before and noticed the detail and depth of
everything.
Alice fell in love with Richie. But he would never let her make love to
her when they where not on drugs. Richie and Ted stopped paying as much
attention to there girlfriends as they used to.
Alice and Chris always talk about how the "establishment (society)" is
so bad and how they hate there parents.
Richie and Ted were drug dealers who had Alice and Chris sell drugs
to people for them while they where at there classes.
On day Alice sold some acid on a stamp to a seven or eight year old
kid. Alice and Chris decided to stop selling drugs so they where going over
to Ted and Richie's apartment to tell them. When they walked in the door
they found there two butt-buddied boy friends making love.
That is so nasty it made my stomach hurt when I read it.
They where using them to sell drugs the whole time.
Since Alice and Chris were both fed up with there parents, the
Establishment, and there X-boyfriends, and using drugs they decided to
move to California and leave it all behind them (October 19th).
They left a note telling about Ted and Richie and where they hid all
there supplies.
They got a crummy apartment in San Francisco (October 26). They
each got a job at a boutique. Chris got hers working at place where famous
celebrities shop for a lady named Sheila and Alice got a job for a guy named
Mr. Mellani who was like a father to Alice.
On night Sheila and her boyfriend Rob had a party that Alice, Chris
and bunch of celebrities where gonna be at (November 23). During the party
they got passed a joint and they stupidly smoked it after having quit for so
long. After everybody left Sheila and Rob introduced them to heroin (bad
mistake). They all got high and enjoyed it. Later they came to find out that
Sheila and Rob both took turns raping and playing perverted games with
them.
When they found out they left town and moved to Berkeley. With all
there money they bought a store, fixed it up as a house/store, and opened
there own little boutique. All was going well. Alice called her Mom and they
sent two plane tickets back (December 23). We decided to go back. Alice
made up with her family and had a great Christmas and the same went for
Chris.
Alice started back at school and kids where asking her to buy drugs
and she told them that she didn't do them anymore. Kids kept bothering her
about it.
Alice and her family have been going on trips every chance they get.
Alice has been off drugs for a little while when she meets a girl named
Doris at a doctors office. They go smoke pot and get stoned.
Her and Doris get a place and become hookers for money so they can
buy drugs. There lives become so messed up over drugs I'm not even gonna
go into it.
She keeps talking about how she is in such a hellhole, her life sucks,
and she wants to kill herself. It would all just stop if she quit using drugs. It's
simple die or live. You choose. God it makes me so mad thinking about how
stupid somebody could be.
Her grandfather had a stoke and died (May 1)!
She just met somebody named Alice.
I have been writing this all the way through the story. I thought that the
main character who wrote the diary was Alice.
She buys a new diary symbolizing her getting a new life, a fresh start,
another chance to succeed.
She is clean and back at home and going to school.
She met a boy named Joel that she falls in love with.
Her grandmother died (July 16).
School got out and there was a party where there would be drugs at
but she didn't go.
She was given acid in a peanut and she had a bad trip. It drove her
insane so she started pulling out her hair, stabbing herself and mentally falling
apart.
She was put in a mental hospital.
Later she was released.
She decided that when this diary filled up she was not going to get
another because is old enough and mature enough to be able to talk to other
people instead of keeping it all bundled up in a little book.
Epilogue: She died three weeks after deciding not to keep another
diary of a drug overdose, it is not known if it is premeditated,
accidental or what.
Have you ever had a problem? I'm sure you have because everybody
sometime in there life does. The book I read Go Ask Alice by an anonymous
author is all about problems, conflicts, and how to deal with them.
I would give a lot of information on the author if that was possible, but
the author is anonymous so I can not do so.
From the very first page I had a hunch that this book was about a drug
addiction problem. "SUGAR & SPICE & EVERYTHING NICE; ACID &
SMACK & NO WAY BACK" (page 1). That was a very moving quote for
me. I am not sure exactly why but I guess because it shows how dangerous
drugs can be.
This book is based on a true diary of a young girl who got mixed up in
the drug world.
Alice bought a diary because she had a big secret that she could never
tell any of her friends. It really only ended up being that a boy named Roger
she was in love with stood her up and she would be to embraced to tell her
friends. She makes a big deal out of it, I can already tell she is dramatic.
Her birthday is only five days apart from mine, that is a weird
coincidence.
From September 19 through September 25 she goes on about how
nothing every happens in her life. She does not enjoy her teachers, subjects
and school. She thinks everything is losing interest and everything's dull. I
think she just is going through the "teenager blues".
Julie Brown had a party but she didn't go because she gained seven
whole pounds. I don't think that seven pounds is a big deal.
On September 30th her father was invited to be the "Dean of Political
Science at --------- ". She says that she is gonna become a new person by
time she gets her new house and that it is gonna be so great. Good maybe
now she will quit crying about her dull life. She says that she is gonna
exercise every morning, eat right, clean my skin (what she never had a bath
before), be optimistic, cheerful and positive. Why couldn't she of just done
all that in the house she lived in before she moved.
Sorry I am being so negative, but this girl is a little cry baby and she is
to dramatic.
On October 10th I found out that she has siblings named Tim and
Alexandia that she is gonna stay with while her parents go house hunting.
They bought a Spanish type house and they took pictures. She said it
will take three or four days for the pictures to get back. That kind of gives
you some perspective on the time period because now a days it only take an
hour.
She went on a diet and lost three pounds but her mother will no longer
let her diet because she thinks that it was not healthy for her.
She wishes she could be like her mother someday. She wonders what
it is like to "going all the way" and she wishes she could talk to her mother
about things like that.
So far the conflict has not been stated.
All of Alice's relatives met at her old house for Christmas. Alice felt
wanted. She wishes that she could always feel that way.
They finally got moved in there new house on January fourth.
There she goes again crying about how her first day of school was
miserable and how she gained 15 pounds. She made no friends, nobody
talked to her, and everybody stared at her and made her uncomfortable.
Both of her siblings made friends there own age.
She finally made a friend named Beth. They have a lot of things in
common.
There is only about two months of school left. Gerta is going to a
Jewish camp for the summer and Alice is not having much fun so she
decided that she wants to go to her grandparents for the summer.
She went to her grandparents for the summer. She has been really
bored because all she has been doing is readying books all summer. She has
been reading a book a day. I wish I could read a book a day. It took me
about three weeks to read this one.
She was in town and she ran into Jill Peters who invited her to a party.
Alice has been wanting to be friends with her for a long time.
I 'm a little confused because Alice says that she has always wanted to
be friends with her, but she is at her grandparents house. How can that be
unless her grandparents live near where she used to.
Alice went to the party (July 10th). Jill brought out some glasses of
soda. Alice did not want to look stupid so she followed what everybody else
was doing, sipping the soda. Suddenly her palms started to get sweated,
everybody was starring at her, and the room got quiet. She thought that they
were trying to poison her. A strange feeling swept over her which strangled
her, suffocated her and made her muscles tense. When she opened her eyes
she noticed that it was Bill who had but his arm around her. Bill said "But
don't worry, I'll baby-sit you. This will be a good trip. Come on, relax, enjoy
it, enjoy it." in a slow record like voice set on the wrong speed. Then he
started to kiss her. She heard his voice repeating over and over in a slow
motion echo type voice. Then she started laughing histaricaly and wildly. She
thought of the most funny and absurd thing in the world. Then she saw the
shifting patterns in the ceiling. She laid her head in Bill's lap and watched the
changing patterns and great fields of red, blue and yellow colors. She tried to
share the experience with the others but she couldn't put it in two words and
all she could do is laugh. Trains of thought were coming to her. She
discovered the true language used by Adam and Eve but it slipped out of her
grasp before she could tell about it. She laid down and started to absorb the
music physically. She could feel, smell and see the rhythm of the music. She
felt that she possessed the wisdom of the ages but she could not describe it.
She looked at the magazine on the table and saw it in a hundred dimensions.
She closed her eyes and felt that she was floating in a sphere, in another
world or in another state. Her breathe rushed away from her like she was in a
fast elevator drop. She felt that she was part of the music, table and of the
book. She started to dance in front of the whole group and enjoyed every
second of it. She heard the neighbors breathing and the Jell-O in there
refrigerator next store.
Later Jill told me that there was LSD in the soda that she was drinking.
Wwwwwoooooooooooooowwwwwwwwwww!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!
That was weird!
Now I feel I have reached what is gonna lead into being the conflict;
drug addiction.
She has heard all of the terrifying stories about using drugs but she still
wants to experiment and try pot. Now she thinks that drugs are not bad and
that all the books written about drugs were written by uninformed, ignorant
people like her parents who have never tried it.
That is here whole damn problem. She thinks that drugs are okay, but
there not. They can cause serious damage.
She feels like Alice in Wonderland. She and I wonder if Lewis G.
Carrol was on drugs too.
She went out with Bill. He introduced her to Torpedo's and Speed.
She said it was like she was riding a shooting star but better.
Her grandfather had a heart attack (July 23rd)! He is okay. Alice stayed
home with him and helped help her grandmother help him (what a tongue
twister).
Bill asked her to a party on August 13th. She accepted and tripped at
the party. She said it was better than last time. She sat for hours examining
her hand. Watching the cells and blood vessels.
She also lost her virginity to Bill last night. She sort of regrets it
because she always was gonna wait for Roger. She is scared she might be
pregnant.
Yup, I was right. That was the start to her drug addiction problem.
Roger stopped by. They got to talking and it ends up that Roger is
going to military school. They said they would write each other and then
Roger kissed Alice.
Alice is so mad at her self for sleeping with Bill and not waiting for
Roger.
Before she left she took some of her grandfathers sleeping pills. So if
she wants to get away from her problem she can go to sleep.
She flew home on August 14th and eventually used all the pills so she
got her doctor to prescribe her tranquilizers.
The setting of the story is not listed in the book. Because they can't
publish it without permission. Yes, the setting does play a role in her conflict
because if she would not of went to her grandparents none of this would of
happened.
All is going well in her life for a while, until she meets a girl named
Chris at a boutique downtown.
Her and Chris become friends and she introduced her to hearts
(uppers) because Roger has been to busy to write her anymore and she is
depressed.
She got her a job at the store she worked at.
Chris introduced Alice to her collage friends, Ted and Richie.
Ted (Chris's date) got Alice to smoke pot and hash (September 26). She felt
greater than she ever had before and noticed the detail and depth of
everything.
Alice fell in love with Richie. But he would never let her make love to
her when they where not on drugs. Richie and Ted stopped paying as much
attention to there girlfriends as they used to.
Alice and Chris always talk about how the "establishment (society)" is
so bad and how they hate there parents.
Richie and Ted were drug dealers who had Alice and Chris sell drugs
to people for them while they where at there classes.
On day Alice sold some acid on a stamp to a seven or eight year old
kid. Alice and Chris decided to stop selling drugs so they where going over
to Ted and Richie's apartment to tell them. When they walked in the door
they found there two butt-buddied boy friends making love.
That is so nasty it made my stomach hurt when I read it.
They where using them to sell drugs the whole time.
Since Alice and Chris were both fed up with there parents, the
Establishment, and there X-boyfriends, and using drugs they decided to
move to California and leave it all behind them (October 19th).
They left a note telling about Ted and Richie and where they hid all
there supplies.
They got a crummy apartment in San Francisco (October 26). They
each got a job at a boutique. Chris got hers working at place where famous
celebrities shop for a lady named Sheila and Alice got a job for a guy named
Mr. Mellani who was like a father to Alice.
On night Sheila and her boyfriend Rob had a party that Alice, Chris
and bunch of celebrities where gonna be at (November 23). During the party
they got passed a joint and they stupidly smoked it after having quit for so
long. After everybody left Sheila and Rob introduced them to heroin (bad
mistake). They all got high and enjoyed it. Later they came to find out that
Sheila and Rob both took turns raping and playing perverted games with
them.
When they found out they left town and moved to Berkeley. With all
there money they bought a store, fixed it up as a house/store, and opened
there own little boutique. All was going well. Alice called her Mom and they
sent two plane tickets back (December 23). We decided to go back. Alice
made up with her family and had a great Christmas and the same went for
Chris.
Alice started back at school and kids where asking her to buy drugs
and she told them that she didn't do them anymore. Kids kept bothering her
about it.
Alice and her family have been going on trips every chance they get.
Alice has been off drugs for a little while when she meets a girl named
Doris at a doctors office. They go smoke pot and get stoned.
Her and Doris get a place and become hookers for money so they can
buy drugs. There lives become so messed up over drugs I'm not even gonna
go into it.
She keeps talking about how she is in such a hellhole, her life sucks,
and she wants to kill herself. It would all just stop if she quit using drugs. It's
simple die or live. You choose. God it makes me so mad thinking about how
stupid somebody could be.
Her grandfather had a stoke and died (May 1)!
She just met somebody named Alice.
I have been writing this all the way through the story. I thought that the
main character who wrote the diary was Alice.
She buys a new diary symbolizing her getting a new life, a fresh start,
another chance to succeed.
She is clean and back at home and going to school.
She met a boy named Joel that she falls in love with.
Her grandmother died (July 16).
School got out and there was a party where there would be drugs at
but she didn't go.
She was given acid in a peanut and she had a bad trip. It drove her
insane so she started pulling out her hair, stabbing herself and mentally falling
apart.
She was put in a mental hospital.
Later she was released.
She decided that when this diary filled up she was not going to get
another because is old enough and mature enough to be able to talk to other
people instead of keeping it all bundled up in a little book.
Epilogue: She died three weeks after deciding not to keep another
diary of a drug overdose, it is not known if it is premeditated,
accidental or what.
Germany
The Marquis de Sade's Attitude Towards Women
The Marquis de Sade was an author in France in the late
1700s. His works were infamous in their time, giving Sade a
reputation as an adulterer, a debaucher, and a sodomite.
One of the more common misrepresentations concerning Sade
was his attitude toward women. His attitude was shown in
his way of life and in two of his literary characters,
Justine and Julliette.
The Marquis de Sade was said to be the first and only
philosopher of vice because of his atheistic and sadistic
activities. He held the common woman in low regard. He
believed that women dressed provocatively because they
feared men would take no notice of them if they were naked.
He cared little for forced sex. Rape is not a crime, he
explained, and is in fact less than robbery, for you get
what is used back after the deed is done (Bloch 108).
Opinions about the Marquis de Sade's attitude towards
sexual freedom for women varies from author to author. A
prevalent one, the one held by Carter, suggests Sade's work
concerns sexual freedom and the nature of such, significant
because of his "refusal to see female sexuality in relation
to a reproductive function."
Sade justified his beliefs through graffiti, playing
psychologist on vandals:
In the stylization of graffiti, the prick is
always presented erect, as an alert attitude.
It points upward, asserts. The hole is open, as
an inert space, as a mouth, waiting to be filled.
This iconography could be derived from the
metaphysical sexual differences: man aspires,
woman serves no function but existence, waiting.
Between her thighs is zero, the symbol of nothingness, that
only attains somethingness when male principle fills it with
meaning (Carter 4).
The Marquis de Sade's way of thought is probably best
symbolized in the missionary position. The missionary
position represents the mythic relationship between
partners. The woman represents the passive receptiveness,
the fertility, and the richness of soil. This relationship
mythicizes and elevates intercourse to an unrealistic
proportion. In a more realistic view, Sade compares married
women with prostitutes, saying that prostitutes were better
paid and that they had fewer delusions (Carter 9).
Most of Sade's opinions of women were geared towards
the present, in what they were in his time. He held
different opinions, however, for how he envisioned women in
the future. Sade suggests that women don't "fuck in the
passive tense and hence automatically fucked up, done over,
undone." Sade declares that he is all for the "right of
women to fuck." It is stated as if the time in which women
copulate tyrannously, cruelly, and aggressively will be a
necessary step in the development of the general human
conscious concerning the nature of copulation. He urges
women to copulate as actively as they can, so that, "powered
by their hitherto untapped sexual energy they will be able
to fuck their way into history, and, in doing so, change it"
(Carter 27).
Women see themselves in the reflection form Sade's
looking glass of misanthropy. Critics say that Sade offers
male fantasies about women in great variety, along with a
number of startling insights. He is said to put pornography
in the service of women (Carter 36).
The Justine series, consisting of six editions, was one
of the most infamous and well known series written by Sade.
While the series had several editions, the storyline
remained basically the same throughout, though becoming more
verbose in each edition.
Two characters emerge from the Justine novels: Justine
and Juliette, who are sisters orphaned at an early age.
These two characters represent the opposite poles of
womanhood in Sade's mind. Justine is the innocent, naive
type who gets mistreated throughout her life. Juliette is
Sade's ideal woman, being uninhibited in her sexual conduct
and in her life, murdering and copulating at whim. She,
naturally, does well in life (Lynch 41-42).
The story of Justine is a long and tragic one, taking
the naive young girl abroad, where she is used and discarded
by man and woman alike. This is due to the fact that she is
a good woman in a predominately male world. "Justine is
good according to the rules concerning women laid down by
men." Her reward is rape, incessant beatings, and
humiliation (Carter 38).
Justine's first encounter in life is with a priest who
tries to seduce her instead of offering her the assistance
she seeks. Next, she encounters a financier named Dubourg.
He abuses her and makes her steal. Dubourg is rewarded for
the vices he has by getting a lucrative government job
(Lynch 47).
Justine soon is received by Du Harpin, an expert in
making loans, plotter of the robbery of a neighbor, who is
utilizing Justine as a intermediary. Justine is arrested as
a result of Du Harpin's misdeeds. She is soon released by a
woman named Dubois, who engineers their escape via setting
aflame the prison (Lynch 42).
Dubois leads Justine to an encounter with her brigand
friends, led by Coeur-de-fer (French for Heart of Iron).
They rape Justine between raids in which she doesn't
participate. During one of their raids, they rob and beat
Saint-Florent. Justine helps Saint-Florent escape. He
promptly expresses his gratitude by raping her and stealing
the little money she had (Lynch 42).
Justine is left abandoned and distraught in the woods.
She happens upon a youthful count named Bressac in the
middle of a homosexual act with one of his servants. Rather
than killing her then for her indiscretion, Bressac brings
her home and forces her to assist with his plan to murder
his wealthy aunt. Justine flees after four years with
Bressac (Lynch 42).
She is soon hired by a "surgeon" who is better
described as a vivisector, who practices his science on his
daughter and on young children. Justine, feeling pity,
attempts to save Bressac's daughter, is caught, and is
branded as a common criminal (Lynch 42).
Justine's cycle of misfortunes continue for some time.
She is visited once again by Dubois and twice by
Saint-Florent, both of whom incriminate her in something not
of her doing. She finally finds her long-lost sister,
Juliette, who she recites her life's story to. Her sister
grants her freedom. She lives for a short time afterwards,
shortly disfigured by lightning and eventually killing her
(Lynch 43).
Juliette, sister of Justine, lives a different life
altogether. Her early life revolves around her tutors, who
introduce different trades. Her first tutor was Mme.
Delbene, a libertine, who introduces infliction of pain for
pleasure. Mme. Delbene's final affirmation to Juliette was,
"Oh, my friend, fuck, you were born to fuck! Nature created
you to be fucked" (Lynch 52).
Her next mentor is Mme. de Lorsange, who brings an
introduction to theft, a supplement to carnal pleasure.
Under Mme. de Lorsange's tutelage, Juliette becomes a
skilled thief, robbing many. Here Juliette learns the
intricacies of being antiethical (Lynch 53).
Juliette's next learning experience comes from
Noirceuil, a believer in the duality and balance of virtue
and vice in people. He is a totally independent individual.
He justifies himself by tracing immorality through
antiquity. He arranges a transvestite wedding, where he
dresses up as a woman and Juliette dresses like a man. He
later violates Juliette's seven-year-old daughter, roasting
her alive afterwards with her mother's permission.
Noirceuil is awarded a position in the ministry (Lynch 53).
Juliette later becomes involved with Saint-Rond, a
minister and king's favorite. He introduces her to the
Society of Friends of Crime. Justine is initiated by being
asked questions about her sexual activities (both past and
present). Her last oath uttered upon entrance in the
Society read,"Do you swear to forever live in the same
degeneracy [as you have all your life]?" She replied yes
(Lynch 53).
Sade's two aforementioned characters represent two
factors in Sade's life: reality and fantasy. Reality, in
Sade's eyes, is Justine. Innocence without prosperity, an
image of woman. Juliette represents fantasy. She is what
Sade expects and hopes the woman of the future will
resemble: uninhibited, free, equal (Lynch). So says
Gullaume Appolinare in Lynch:
Justine is the old woman, subjugated, miserable,
and less than human; Juliette, on the contrary,
represents the new woman he glimpses, a being we
cannot conceive of, that breaks loose from
humanity, that will have wings and will renew
the universe.
Sade justified his writings and feelings by saying,
"Flesh comes to us out of history, so does the repression
and taboo that governs our experience of flesh." He cites
flesh as verification of itself, rewriting the Cartesian
cognito, "I fuck therefore I am" (Carter, 11).
Sade punished virtue in his writings. Women are the
representation of innocence to him, which isn't too far from
how his contemporaries felt. By punishing Justine in his
novels, he isn't punishing woman, simply the innocence that
woman represents.
While Sade believed that the woman with which he was
copulating was simply there to serve his needs, he also felt
it could (and should) work the other way around. It is as
if he is saying, "Just because I use you, it doesn't mean
you can't use me." Sade couldn't be a sexist in the modern
sense, simply because he advocated free sexuality so much.
He saw the women of his time and was troubled by it.
In turn, he wrote about these women, represented in Justine.
The woman he saw in the future were a bolder, free-spirited
kind, represented in Juliette. It was the promise of this
new genre of women he looked forward to and was enlightened
by.
In short, Sade disliked subjugated women and liked
empowered women. He liked women closer to his own persona.
Sade was probably the first pornographer, and as such,
caused quite an uproar. Most of the judgements made about
Sade by critics were reflexes, made without taking in the
full spectrum of what he was, what he wrote, and what he
did. The judgement of Sade by the populus, therefore is one
more severe than it should be.
The Marquis de Sade was an author in France in the late
1700s. His works were infamous in their time, giving Sade a
reputation as an adulterer, a debaucher, and a sodomite.
One of the more common misrepresentations concerning Sade
was his attitude toward women. His attitude was shown in
his way of life and in two of his literary characters,
Justine and Julliette.
The Marquis de Sade was said to be the first and only
philosopher of vice because of his atheistic and sadistic
activities. He held the common woman in low regard. He
believed that women dressed provocatively because they
feared men would take no notice of them if they were naked.
He cared little for forced sex. Rape is not a crime, he
explained, and is in fact less than robbery, for you get
what is used back after the deed is done (Bloch 108).
Opinions about the Marquis de Sade's attitude towards
sexual freedom for women varies from author to author. A
prevalent one, the one held by Carter, suggests Sade's work
concerns sexual freedom and the nature of such, significant
because of his "refusal to see female sexuality in relation
to a reproductive function."
Sade justified his beliefs through graffiti, playing
psychologist on vandals:
In the stylization of graffiti, the prick is
always presented erect, as an alert attitude.
It points upward, asserts. The hole is open, as
an inert space, as a mouth, waiting to be filled.
This iconography could be derived from the
metaphysical sexual differences: man aspires,
woman serves no function but existence, waiting.
Between her thighs is zero, the symbol of nothingness, that
only attains somethingness when male principle fills it with
meaning (Carter 4).
The Marquis de Sade's way of thought is probably best
symbolized in the missionary position. The missionary
position represents the mythic relationship between
partners. The woman represents the passive receptiveness,
the fertility, and the richness of soil. This relationship
mythicizes and elevates intercourse to an unrealistic
proportion. In a more realistic view, Sade compares married
women with prostitutes, saying that prostitutes were better
paid and that they had fewer delusions (Carter 9).
Most of Sade's opinions of women were geared towards
the present, in what they were in his time. He held
different opinions, however, for how he envisioned women in
the future. Sade suggests that women don't "fuck in the
passive tense and hence automatically fucked up, done over,
undone." Sade declares that he is all for the "right of
women to fuck." It is stated as if the time in which women
copulate tyrannously, cruelly, and aggressively will be a
necessary step in the development of the general human
conscious concerning the nature of copulation. He urges
women to copulate as actively as they can, so that, "powered
by their hitherto untapped sexual energy they will be able
to fuck their way into history, and, in doing so, change it"
(Carter 27).
Women see themselves in the reflection form Sade's
looking glass of misanthropy. Critics say that Sade offers
male fantasies about women in great variety, along with a
number of startling insights. He is said to put pornography
in the service of women (Carter 36).
The Justine series, consisting of six editions, was one
of the most infamous and well known series written by Sade.
While the series had several editions, the storyline
remained basically the same throughout, though becoming more
verbose in each edition.
Two characters emerge from the Justine novels: Justine
and Juliette, who are sisters orphaned at an early age.
These two characters represent the opposite poles of
womanhood in Sade's mind. Justine is the innocent, naive
type who gets mistreated throughout her life. Juliette is
Sade's ideal woman, being uninhibited in her sexual conduct
and in her life, murdering and copulating at whim. She,
naturally, does well in life (Lynch 41-42).
The story of Justine is a long and tragic one, taking
the naive young girl abroad, where she is used and discarded
by man and woman alike. This is due to the fact that she is
a good woman in a predominately male world. "Justine is
good according to the rules concerning women laid down by
men." Her reward is rape, incessant beatings, and
humiliation (Carter 38).
Justine's first encounter in life is with a priest who
tries to seduce her instead of offering her the assistance
she seeks. Next, she encounters a financier named Dubourg.
He abuses her and makes her steal. Dubourg is rewarded for
the vices he has by getting a lucrative government job
(Lynch 47).
Justine soon is received by Du Harpin, an expert in
making loans, plotter of the robbery of a neighbor, who is
utilizing Justine as a intermediary. Justine is arrested as
a result of Du Harpin's misdeeds. She is soon released by a
woman named Dubois, who engineers their escape via setting
aflame the prison (Lynch 42).
Dubois leads Justine to an encounter with her brigand
friends, led by Coeur-de-fer (French for Heart of Iron).
They rape Justine between raids in which she doesn't
participate. During one of their raids, they rob and beat
Saint-Florent. Justine helps Saint-Florent escape. He
promptly expresses his gratitude by raping her and stealing
the little money she had (Lynch 42).
Justine is left abandoned and distraught in the woods.
She happens upon a youthful count named Bressac in the
middle of a homosexual act with one of his servants. Rather
than killing her then for her indiscretion, Bressac brings
her home and forces her to assist with his plan to murder
his wealthy aunt. Justine flees after four years with
Bressac (Lynch 42).
She is soon hired by a "surgeon" who is better
described as a vivisector, who practices his science on his
daughter and on young children. Justine, feeling pity,
attempts to save Bressac's daughter, is caught, and is
branded as a common criminal (Lynch 42).
Justine's cycle of misfortunes continue for some time.
She is visited once again by Dubois and twice by
Saint-Florent, both of whom incriminate her in something not
of her doing. She finally finds her long-lost sister,
Juliette, who she recites her life's story to. Her sister
grants her freedom. She lives for a short time afterwards,
shortly disfigured by lightning and eventually killing her
(Lynch 43).
Juliette, sister of Justine, lives a different life
altogether. Her early life revolves around her tutors, who
introduce different trades. Her first tutor was Mme.
Delbene, a libertine, who introduces infliction of pain for
pleasure. Mme. Delbene's final affirmation to Juliette was,
"Oh, my friend, fuck, you were born to fuck! Nature created
you to be fucked" (Lynch 52).
Her next mentor is Mme. de Lorsange, who brings an
introduction to theft, a supplement to carnal pleasure.
Under Mme. de Lorsange's tutelage, Juliette becomes a
skilled thief, robbing many. Here Juliette learns the
intricacies of being antiethical (Lynch 53).
Juliette's next learning experience comes from
Noirceuil, a believer in the duality and balance of virtue
and vice in people. He is a totally independent individual.
He justifies himself by tracing immorality through
antiquity. He arranges a transvestite wedding, where he
dresses up as a woman and Juliette dresses like a man. He
later violates Juliette's seven-year-old daughter, roasting
her alive afterwards with her mother's permission.
Noirceuil is awarded a position in the ministry (Lynch 53).
Juliette later becomes involved with Saint-Rond, a
minister and king's favorite. He introduces her to the
Society of Friends of Crime. Justine is initiated by being
asked questions about her sexual activities (both past and
present). Her last oath uttered upon entrance in the
Society read,"Do you swear to forever live in the same
degeneracy [as you have all your life]?" She replied yes
(Lynch 53).
Sade's two aforementioned characters represent two
factors in Sade's life: reality and fantasy. Reality, in
Sade's eyes, is Justine. Innocence without prosperity, an
image of woman. Juliette represents fantasy. She is what
Sade expects and hopes the woman of the future will
resemble: uninhibited, free, equal (Lynch). So says
Gullaume Appolinare in Lynch:
Justine is the old woman, subjugated, miserable,
and less than human; Juliette, on the contrary,
represents the new woman he glimpses, a being we
cannot conceive of, that breaks loose from
humanity, that will have wings and will renew
the universe.
Sade justified his writings and feelings by saying,
"Flesh comes to us out of history, so does the repression
and taboo that governs our experience of flesh." He cites
flesh as verification of itself, rewriting the Cartesian
cognito, "I fuck therefore I am" (Carter, 11).
Sade punished virtue in his writings. Women are the
representation of innocence to him, which isn't too far from
how his contemporaries felt. By punishing Justine in his
novels, he isn't punishing woman, simply the innocence that
woman represents.
While Sade believed that the woman with which he was
copulating was simply there to serve his needs, he also felt
it could (and should) work the other way around. It is as
if he is saying, "Just because I use you, it doesn't mean
you can't use me." Sade couldn't be a sexist in the modern
sense, simply because he advocated free sexuality so much.
He saw the women of his time and was troubled by it.
In turn, he wrote about these women, represented in Justine.
The woman he saw in the future were a bolder, free-spirited
kind, represented in Juliette. It was the promise of this
new genre of women he looked forward to and was enlightened
by.
In short, Sade disliked subjugated women and liked
empowered women. He liked women closer to his own persona.
Sade was probably the first pornographer, and as such,
caused quite an uproar. Most of the judgements made about
Sade by critics were reflexes, made without taking in the
full spectrum of what he was, what he wrote, and what he
did. The judgement of Sade by the populus, therefore is one
more severe than it should be.
geology of massif montgris
Declaration
This report entitled "The Geology of the Massif Montgris" was composed by me and is based in my own work. Where the work of others has been used, it is fully acknowledged in the text and in captions to tables and illustrations.
Signed ...........................................
Date ...............................................
Chapter 1.0
Abstract
This is a study of the Massif Montgris, it is based on evidence gathered in the field over 21 days of field work. To supplement this data I have looked at papers and works by previous visitors to the Montgris. The units within the area are from the Upper Cretaceous the Tertiary and the Quaternary. I aim to give an overall guide to the geology on a smaller scale than has previously been accomplished. This study is mainly aimed at correctly dating the units of limestone using micropalaeontological data. The micropalaeontological data has also given light into the palaeoenvironment/geography during deposition.
Chapter 2
Introduction
2.0.1 Introduction
Between the 24th of June and the 24th of July 1995 Glen Burnham and I ventured to Catalunya. More precisely to Torroella de Montgris. Torroella is in the North East of Spain, just inland of the Mediterranean sea. This remarkable old town lies at the foot of the rather imposing Massif Montgris.
Locally known as "El Montgris" (literally the grey Mountain) the massif rises up over the town and dominates the skyline. Torroella sits on quaternary conglomerate deposits. These are easily eroded, hence the valley between Pals (10Km to the south) and Torroella is extremely flat. The valley is bisected by the river El Ter, which flows at a leisurely pace from the foothills of the Pyrenees. The river flows to the south of Torroella and winds it's way to its conclusion in the Playa de Pals (6Km east of Torroella).
El Montgris has been known to humans since prehistoric times. It has some large caves on its slopes that served as a shelter to prehistoric man. The area was very popular with the Romans who cultivated the local area, built roads and towns (many of which still stand to this day) such as Peretelada to the south adjacent to Pals.
Since the time of the Romans Torroella has grown into a thriving market town. It has always had close links with the Montgris which until recently still served a purpose as a shelter, not , however, against the elements but against Pirates and marauders from the sea. In fact, on top of the Muntanya Santa Catherina stands the remains of a thirteenth century castle (the last castle ever built in Spain).
El Montgris has provided for the local commerce since it was first settled. The local people value the Mountains greatly and still use them today. The rock from which our dwelling was made was quarried from the mountain, the castle rock was quarried on the mountain.
2.0.2 Aims of Study.
When I first considered the Montgris as a project area I realised that information would be sparse and that the project would be more complicated than a similar project in the U.K because the environment is so very different and resources would be a great deal more difficult to access (due to the language barrier). I also realised the project would probably be very different to the proposal.
Before Glen and I left England we attempted to research the Massif Montgris through the usual channels in order to get an idea of what we would be facing. The research lead to a few vague leads, we new the rock was sedimentary and most likely limestone. Having visited the area previously I could recall a little about the rocks but was certain of their sedimentary nature.
Our first lead came from an unexpected source. My parents had vacationed in the area and upon my request had asked locally about any information pertaining to the Geology. The result was that they brought back a research map that dated the Massif as Cretaceous but suggested it was composed of 1 massive bed. We loosely agreed our study areas and arranged our projects accordingly. The local guide books and map had supplied us with information about the palaeontology (macro fossils) which suggested the rock was full of bivalves, brachiopods, corals and belemnites.
Before leaving we were unable to unearth much more information BUT seemingly at the last minute we were able to make contact with Dr. David Brusi from the Universidad de Gerona(departament del geophysica) who reassured us that upon our arrival in Spain he would brief us on geology of El Montgris.
Therefore, with very little in the way of successful research we traveled to Spain. Upon our arrival we immediately made our way to the city of Gerona and to the University. Our meeting with David Brusi and his team proved very productive indeed as they gave us a couple of papers about the area as well as providing us with a geological map of the Montgris. The most important information they gave us was about our working environment and how to "survive".
2.0.3 Methodology.
Previously, we have been taught to outcrop map. These skills were honed in the inhospitable environment of the Highlands of Scotland, where one can actually draw outcrops onto the map. It was, therefore, it was the intention to use this technique over approximately 6km2 .
In order for this mapping technique to work you have to know what it is you are looking at. With this knowledge in mind one set out to spend most of the first week exploring the area and identifying the different strata, and their relationships. This as you will see proved most difficult for various reasons. The plan had been to have the Muntanya de Santa Catherina as common ground, but after 3 or 4 days we came to the conclusions were made that there was a need for safety equipment. There were reports of packs of wild dogs patrolling the area also the terrain was at best rugged and challenging and at worst moderately dangerous. On top of all this it was understood that work would have to be completed in temperatures of up to 40 0 Celsius, every day with the possibility of hotter/muggier weather to come.
Each day would begin with plotting a starting position, when the castle was obscured an estimated position would be used to locate a specific point. Most dip/strike readings are estimated as there were not many bedding planes level enough to use the compass clinometer accurately . The local geological map (296-2-2[78-24]) gave an indication to the geological relationships present, however, even though the map is a 1:25,000 it is quite ambiguous with the position of some boundaries and faults.
In order to cross reference the different strata, samples were taken and labeled. So further samples could be identified. This was assisted by the geological map and by referring to the map it was possible to take samples away from faults and boundaries to ensure correct identification.
Chapter 3
The Rocks
This is an in depth study into the locations, ages and natures of the rocks that were studied. These have included both observations from the field and later observations made in response to new evidence, which was forthcoming after thin sections of the different units were made in the laboratory.
Whilst in Spain Glen and I only had each other to consult on the more difficult matters of El Montgris. This led to a subtle stagnation of ideas towards the end of the trip. Therefore, on our return we were most grateful for the assistance of various members of the faculty in gently pointing us in different directions which proved to be pivotal. I have attempted to bring together various different sources of data in the study of the individual rock types.
Limestone diferention between facies variations was exceedingly difficult in the field. Therefore, it was necessary to use external references these resources have been the 1994 1:25,000 scale geological map of Torroella de Montgrí produced by the Servei Geològic de Catalunya. This provided gives basic framework in the field and also a foundation with which to begin research upon the return to England. The main tool in discovering the nature of the rocks was micropalaeontology. The mainstay of this evidence is the study of the Foraminiferida within the thin sections of each unit. The most useful resource in this respect was: Loeblich A. R. Tappan H., Foraminiferal Genera and their classification plates 1988 Van Nostrand Reinhold.
This book gives an accurate correlation and measuring device. It gave in all cases a link between the framework in the map and the actual rocks we encountered. This in turn has allowed us to build up a stratigraphy as well as helping to formulate our ideas with respect of the structural relationships within the Massif. In addition to all the less obvious links it gave a very exact view of the palaeoenvironment during deposition.
Chapter 3.1
The Rocks
Grey Limestone
3.1.1 Location
The grey unit occurs at the very base of the limestone succession. In the area that was mapped the grey unit is found adjacent to the underlying thrust plane. The unit is best exposed within the study area on the south slope of Mt. Santa Caterina between the 170-200m contours. The unit is also supposed to appear on the south slope of MontPlà, also within the area under study. Evidence for this outcropping is less obvious and difficult to locate.
3.1.2 Age/Thickness
The grey unit is thought to be as being from the Turonian stage. Subsequent data has confirmed this evidence to corroborate this with microfossil data.
As for thickness, the unit appears to be up to 45m thick.
3.1.3 Field Description
This was one of the first units encountered, as with the red limestone. This unit was grey on the surface and slightly darker when a fresh surface was made. As with the red unit it effervesces on the application of dilute hydrochloric acid, thus showing it to be of carbonate nature. Another correlation to the red unit was the fact that veining increased in coverage, the closer you get to the North-South faults.
It should be noted that most of the information about grey was collected on Mt. Santa Caterina. The unit was for the most part very accessible there because of paths made by tourists/shepherds over recent years. The grey was no different to the other units in as much as it has been attacked by surface erosion. This has left it in the early stages of karstification. The grey did not have many joints within it therefore it was nearly impossible to measure the dip/strike. The grey unit is cut by two faults with north east south west orientation in Mt. Santa Caterina.
3.1.4 Orientation
The few dip/strike readings showed the grey to have a dip direction opposite to that of the red. In this bed there was evidence of an an
This report entitled "The Geology of the Massif Montgris" was composed by me and is based in my own work. Where the work of others has been used, it is fully acknowledged in the text and in captions to tables and illustrations.
Signed ...........................................
Date ...............................................
Chapter 1.0
Abstract
This is a study of the Massif Montgris, it is based on evidence gathered in the field over 21 days of field work. To supplement this data I have looked at papers and works by previous visitors to the Montgris. The units within the area are from the Upper Cretaceous the Tertiary and the Quaternary. I aim to give an overall guide to the geology on a smaller scale than has previously been accomplished. This study is mainly aimed at correctly dating the units of limestone using micropalaeontological data. The micropalaeontological data has also given light into the palaeoenvironment/geography during deposition.
Chapter 2
Introduction
2.0.1 Introduction
Between the 24th of June and the 24th of July 1995 Glen Burnham and I ventured to Catalunya. More precisely to Torroella de Montgris. Torroella is in the North East of Spain, just inland of the Mediterranean sea. This remarkable old town lies at the foot of the rather imposing Massif Montgris.
Locally known as "El Montgris" (literally the grey Mountain) the massif rises up over the town and dominates the skyline. Torroella sits on quaternary conglomerate deposits. These are easily eroded, hence the valley between Pals (10Km to the south) and Torroella is extremely flat. The valley is bisected by the river El Ter, which flows at a leisurely pace from the foothills of the Pyrenees. The river flows to the south of Torroella and winds it's way to its conclusion in the Playa de Pals (6Km east of Torroella).
El Montgris has been known to humans since prehistoric times. It has some large caves on its slopes that served as a shelter to prehistoric man. The area was very popular with the Romans who cultivated the local area, built roads and towns (many of which still stand to this day) such as Peretelada to the south adjacent to Pals.
Since the time of the Romans Torroella has grown into a thriving market town. It has always had close links with the Montgris which until recently still served a purpose as a shelter, not , however, against the elements but against Pirates and marauders from the sea. In fact, on top of the Muntanya Santa Catherina stands the remains of a thirteenth century castle (the last castle ever built in Spain).
El Montgris has provided for the local commerce since it was first settled. The local people value the Mountains greatly and still use them today. The rock from which our dwelling was made was quarried from the mountain, the castle rock was quarried on the mountain.
2.0.2 Aims of Study.
When I first considered the Montgris as a project area I realised that information would be sparse and that the project would be more complicated than a similar project in the U.K because the environment is so very different and resources would be a great deal more difficult to access (due to the language barrier). I also realised the project would probably be very different to the proposal.
Before Glen and I left England we attempted to research the Massif Montgris through the usual channels in order to get an idea of what we would be facing. The research lead to a few vague leads, we new the rock was sedimentary and most likely limestone. Having visited the area previously I could recall a little about the rocks but was certain of their sedimentary nature.
Our first lead came from an unexpected source. My parents had vacationed in the area and upon my request had asked locally about any information pertaining to the Geology. The result was that they brought back a research map that dated the Massif as Cretaceous but suggested it was composed of 1 massive bed. We loosely agreed our study areas and arranged our projects accordingly. The local guide books and map had supplied us with information about the palaeontology (macro fossils) which suggested the rock was full of bivalves, brachiopods, corals and belemnites.
Before leaving we were unable to unearth much more information BUT seemingly at the last minute we were able to make contact with Dr. David Brusi from the Universidad de Gerona(departament del geophysica) who reassured us that upon our arrival in Spain he would brief us on geology of El Montgris.
Therefore, with very little in the way of successful research we traveled to Spain. Upon our arrival we immediately made our way to the city of Gerona and to the University. Our meeting with David Brusi and his team proved very productive indeed as they gave us a couple of papers about the area as well as providing us with a geological map of the Montgris. The most important information they gave us was about our working environment and how to "survive".
2.0.3 Methodology.
Previously, we have been taught to outcrop map. These skills were honed in the inhospitable environment of the Highlands of Scotland, where one can actually draw outcrops onto the map. It was, therefore, it was the intention to use this technique over approximately 6km2 .
In order for this mapping technique to work you have to know what it is you are looking at. With this knowledge in mind one set out to spend most of the first week exploring the area and identifying the different strata, and their relationships. This as you will see proved most difficult for various reasons. The plan had been to have the Muntanya de Santa Catherina as common ground, but after 3 or 4 days we came to the conclusions were made that there was a need for safety equipment. There were reports of packs of wild dogs patrolling the area also the terrain was at best rugged and challenging and at worst moderately dangerous. On top of all this it was understood that work would have to be completed in temperatures of up to 40 0 Celsius, every day with the possibility of hotter/muggier weather to come.
Each day would begin with plotting a starting position, when the castle was obscured an estimated position would be used to locate a specific point. Most dip/strike readings are estimated as there were not many bedding planes level enough to use the compass clinometer accurately . The local geological map (296-2-2[78-24]) gave an indication to the geological relationships present, however, even though the map is a 1:25,000 it is quite ambiguous with the position of some boundaries and faults.
In order to cross reference the different strata, samples were taken and labeled. So further samples could be identified. This was assisted by the geological map and by referring to the map it was possible to take samples away from faults and boundaries to ensure correct identification.
Chapter 3
The Rocks
This is an in depth study into the locations, ages and natures of the rocks that were studied. These have included both observations from the field and later observations made in response to new evidence, which was forthcoming after thin sections of the different units were made in the laboratory.
Whilst in Spain Glen and I only had each other to consult on the more difficult matters of El Montgris. This led to a subtle stagnation of ideas towards the end of the trip. Therefore, on our return we were most grateful for the assistance of various members of the faculty in gently pointing us in different directions which proved to be pivotal. I have attempted to bring together various different sources of data in the study of the individual rock types.
Limestone diferention between facies variations was exceedingly difficult in the field. Therefore, it was necessary to use external references these resources have been the 1994 1:25,000 scale geological map of Torroella de Montgrí produced by the Servei Geològic de Catalunya. This provided gives basic framework in the field and also a foundation with which to begin research upon the return to England. The main tool in discovering the nature of the rocks was micropalaeontology. The mainstay of this evidence is the study of the Foraminiferida within the thin sections of each unit. The most useful resource in this respect was: Loeblich A. R. Tappan H., Foraminiferal Genera and their classification plates 1988 Van Nostrand Reinhold.
This book gives an accurate correlation and measuring device. It gave in all cases a link between the framework in the map and the actual rocks we encountered. This in turn has allowed us to build up a stratigraphy as well as helping to formulate our ideas with respect of the structural relationships within the Massif. In addition to all the less obvious links it gave a very exact view of the palaeoenvironment during deposition.
Chapter 3.1
The Rocks
Grey Limestone
3.1.1 Location
The grey unit occurs at the very base of the limestone succession. In the area that was mapped the grey unit is found adjacent to the underlying thrust plane. The unit is best exposed within the study area on the south slope of Mt. Santa Caterina between the 170-200m contours. The unit is also supposed to appear on the south slope of MontPlà, also within the area under study. Evidence for this outcropping is less obvious and difficult to locate.
3.1.2 Age/Thickness
The grey unit is thought to be as being from the Turonian stage. Subsequent data has confirmed this evidence to corroborate this with microfossil data.
As for thickness, the unit appears to be up to 45m thick.
3.1.3 Field Description
This was one of the first units encountered, as with the red limestone. This unit was grey on the surface and slightly darker when a fresh surface was made. As with the red unit it effervesces on the application of dilute hydrochloric acid, thus showing it to be of carbonate nature. Another correlation to the red unit was the fact that veining increased in coverage, the closer you get to the North-South faults.
It should be noted that most of the information about grey was collected on Mt. Santa Caterina. The unit was for the most part very accessible there because of paths made by tourists/shepherds over recent years. The grey was no different to the other units in as much as it has been attacked by surface erosion. This has left it in the early stages of karstification. The grey did not have many joints within it therefore it was nearly impossible to measure the dip/strike. The grey unit is cut by two faults with north east south west orientation in Mt. Santa Caterina.
3.1.4 Orientation
The few dip/strike readings showed the grey to have a dip direction opposite to that of the red. In this bed there was evidence of an an
Galicia
Galicia
Galicia is located in the green northwestern part of Spain. If it was not for Santiago de Compestela, Galicia may not have been known as well as it is. As it is some os Galicia's provinces are not even known to tourists, and probably will never be. Unlike the rest of Spain, Galicia looks much like Ireland. Which attracted the Celts during their exploration. The landscape is lush and filled with pine and eucalyptus. Galicia also has some of the best beaches in all of Spain.
Gallegos (Galicia's people) are very different from other Spanish people and seem to almost be a different race. They have a whiter pailer complextion, and have blond hair. They are also different in the things that they do for entertainment. They don't have any of the high-tech theatures, or the night life of Madrid. They are more interested in music, poetry, land, family, witchcraft, death, and superstition. They spend a lot of time thinking about things and why they are the way that they are. They usually are not prejudice to any outsiders, and willing listen to their ideas. People believe that many of these traits came from the Celts who came in 1000 B.C. and ruled until A.D. 137. They seem to have many things in common with the Irish and the Scots because of this. Including a bagpipe-like instrument called a Gaita.
The language of Galicia is different from the rest of Spain also, they speak a variation of Castillian which has some French tones as well as Portuguese. They have their own favorite foods also, which consist mainly of seafood. Some of their specialty dishes are: merluza (hake), cigalas (prawns), camarones (small shrimp). chipirones (little squid), langostines (crayfish), vieiras (scallops), percebes (goose baracles), and trout and other local fish. Most of their dishes are served either in casseroles or broiled, or steamed, or rolled into crepes called empanadas. In the winter months, the dishes are served with meat instead of seafood. Usually the meat is rabbit, or game. Although ham, pork, and sausages are also served. Cheese is also another specialty of Galicia, a entire meal can be made up of just cheese, and not be boring! Many Gallegos have cheese and peasant bread for their lunchtime meal every day. For desserts, the Gallegos make excellant pastrys and sponge cakes, which are not found in any other part of Spain.
Wine is probably the greatest thing that Galicia has to offer to the world, often said to be one of the best wine makers of the world. Albarino is probably the best wine from Galicia, it is said to be Spains long awaited white-wine. It is one of the most interesting wines in Spain, and rapidly becoming one of the most expensive. The growing area for Albarino is around the town of cambados, on the Atlantic coast in the Pontevedra province. To be called Albarino, the wine must be made from 100% Albarino grapes. Albarino is a dry, elegant, acidy wine, and has a very flowery smell. It is usually produced in small lot by Gallego artisans, which causes it to be so expensive. Not long ago it was limited to Galicia, but now a few businesses have begun to distribute it to other parts of Spain.
Galicia is also known for its religious festivals and every parish has a festival for its patron saint once evey year. Since their are almost 4,000 parishes in Galicia you are very likely to be able to visit one when visiting. During these festivals, you can purchase crafts, talk to neighbors, and listen to live bands. Some of the more popular festivals are: Los Maios, celebrated in May, and Magosto, celebrated in November.
The cathedral of Santiago is one of the major sites in Galicia, which is located in the plaza de Obradoiro. It is a huge 17th century baroque cathedral with two huge towers that seem to reach to heaven inself. In the afternoon sun, the cathedral seems to glow a bright gold color whcih is caused by a buildup of a lichen over the years. The churches centerpiece is a statue of Saint Janes on top of the main altar at the front of the central nave. At the back of the statue, there is a staircase that leads up to the statue. Many pilgrims walk up the staircase to touch the statue. Beneath the retable is a narrow passageway that leads to the crypt which is built into the foundation of the 9th century church that used to be there. The remains of the saint and his disciples are in silver caskets there, and people go down to pay respect to him often. Back in the main part of the the church, the high vaulted inside creates a sensational feeling that is undescribable is felt. A gigantic censer hangs in front of the altar, and on holidays it scents the entire church with incense. The censer was built on such a large scale to try to cover up the horrible smell of all the pilgrims after traveling to the cathedral. It is so heavy that eight full grown men are required to swing it. The chapels lining the walls of the church are filled with rich altars, tombs, and various works of art. The reliquary chapel, located off the right name just inside the cathedral contains valuable urns, and statues. The treasury contains silver, gold, and brinze crucufixes from various centeries, statues of Saint James, and jewelery. Upstairs, ther are Flemish tapestries from the 17th century and a dozen from the 19th century based on the cartoons of Goya. Finally after exiting the cathedral, you'll find many beautiful doors, and archways. Be sure to see the Puerta de las Platerias, a romanesque doorway, with carvings of king David and the creation of Adam and Eve.
The Hostal de los Reyes Catolicos is a finely hotel furnished that would make excellant accomidations if funds allow. It is located right on the Paza de Obradoiro, double rooms are currently around 32,000 pesetas a night during high season, and 25,000 pesetas off season, which isn't too bad considering how expensive rooms in Paris and London are. The lobby is filled with antiques as well as some of the bedrooms. Paintings decerate the hallways and rooms, which have all been recently refurbished. Many of the rooms have casement windows that open onto a courtyard. The courtyards of Mark, Matthew, Luke and John are a beautiful place to take a early morning walk. There are two restaurants in the hotel, one casual, one more expensive and more formal. The formal one has a mideivel look to it and has high vaulted ceilings. The living room provides a wonderful place to wait for a seat in one of the tow restaurants or a nice place to have an after dinner drink. While there be sure to have the breakfast buffet. It includes dishes from all over as well as local favorites. A good place to end the day is on the stone bench that is in front of the Hotel, it provides a lovely view.
Shopping in the old town is also a good idea for spending a day. There is no need to worry about getting lost and many international and local crafts can be found all over the area. There is a large bookstore that carries English-language books and newspapers which is a good place to start off the shopping day.
If you would like to spend a day at the beach, the Isla De Arousa is an excellant island to spend it at. It is serviced by frequent ferry service from Vilanova, and has many beautiful beaches and also excellant sportfishing. It is the largest Island in Galicia and is also the closest.
Getting around Spain is fairly easy, the most expensive, but easiest way is to rent a autoemobile, there is a good network of roads going to every part of Spain starting at the Plaza Del Sol in the center of Madrid, which is also the geographic center of Spain. If you wish to save money the bus is also another good alternative, Spain has a very good network of public bus systems that go almost anywhere you would want to go. The train is also a very good way to travel. Europe is famous for its train system and A person can get anywhere he or she wants to go by train. Spains trains are fairly comfortable and travel at reasonably fast speeds so you can get where you want to get quickly.
Galicia is located in the green northwestern part of Spain. If it was not for Santiago de Compestela, Galicia may not have been known as well as it is. As it is some os Galicia's provinces are not even known to tourists, and probably will never be. Unlike the rest of Spain, Galicia looks much like Ireland. Which attracted the Celts during their exploration. The landscape is lush and filled with pine and eucalyptus. Galicia also has some of the best beaches in all of Spain.
Gallegos (Galicia's people) are very different from other Spanish people and seem to almost be a different race. They have a whiter pailer complextion, and have blond hair. They are also different in the things that they do for entertainment. They don't have any of the high-tech theatures, or the night life of Madrid. They are more interested in music, poetry, land, family, witchcraft, death, and superstition. They spend a lot of time thinking about things and why they are the way that they are. They usually are not prejudice to any outsiders, and willing listen to their ideas. People believe that many of these traits came from the Celts who came in 1000 B.C. and ruled until A.D. 137. They seem to have many things in common with the Irish and the Scots because of this. Including a bagpipe-like instrument called a Gaita.
The language of Galicia is different from the rest of Spain also, they speak a variation of Castillian which has some French tones as well as Portuguese. They have their own favorite foods also, which consist mainly of seafood. Some of their specialty dishes are: merluza (hake), cigalas (prawns), camarones (small shrimp). chipirones (little squid), langostines (crayfish), vieiras (scallops), percebes (goose baracles), and trout and other local fish. Most of their dishes are served either in casseroles or broiled, or steamed, or rolled into crepes called empanadas. In the winter months, the dishes are served with meat instead of seafood. Usually the meat is rabbit, or game. Although ham, pork, and sausages are also served. Cheese is also another specialty of Galicia, a entire meal can be made up of just cheese, and not be boring! Many Gallegos have cheese and peasant bread for their lunchtime meal every day. For desserts, the Gallegos make excellant pastrys and sponge cakes, which are not found in any other part of Spain.
Wine is probably the greatest thing that Galicia has to offer to the world, often said to be one of the best wine makers of the world. Albarino is probably the best wine from Galicia, it is said to be Spains long awaited white-wine. It is one of the most interesting wines in Spain, and rapidly becoming one of the most expensive. The growing area for Albarino is around the town of cambados, on the Atlantic coast in the Pontevedra province. To be called Albarino, the wine must be made from 100% Albarino grapes. Albarino is a dry, elegant, acidy wine, and has a very flowery smell. It is usually produced in small lot by Gallego artisans, which causes it to be so expensive. Not long ago it was limited to Galicia, but now a few businesses have begun to distribute it to other parts of Spain.
Galicia is also known for its religious festivals and every parish has a festival for its patron saint once evey year. Since their are almost 4,000 parishes in Galicia you are very likely to be able to visit one when visiting. During these festivals, you can purchase crafts, talk to neighbors, and listen to live bands. Some of the more popular festivals are: Los Maios, celebrated in May, and Magosto, celebrated in November.
The cathedral of Santiago is one of the major sites in Galicia, which is located in the plaza de Obradoiro. It is a huge 17th century baroque cathedral with two huge towers that seem to reach to heaven inself. In the afternoon sun, the cathedral seems to glow a bright gold color whcih is caused by a buildup of a lichen over the years. The churches centerpiece is a statue of Saint Janes on top of the main altar at the front of the central nave. At the back of the statue, there is a staircase that leads up to the statue. Many pilgrims walk up the staircase to touch the statue. Beneath the retable is a narrow passageway that leads to the crypt which is built into the foundation of the 9th century church that used to be there. The remains of the saint and his disciples are in silver caskets there, and people go down to pay respect to him often. Back in the main part of the the church, the high vaulted inside creates a sensational feeling that is undescribable is felt. A gigantic censer hangs in front of the altar, and on holidays it scents the entire church with incense. The censer was built on such a large scale to try to cover up the horrible smell of all the pilgrims after traveling to the cathedral. It is so heavy that eight full grown men are required to swing it. The chapels lining the walls of the church are filled with rich altars, tombs, and various works of art. The reliquary chapel, located off the right name just inside the cathedral contains valuable urns, and statues. The treasury contains silver, gold, and brinze crucufixes from various centeries, statues of Saint James, and jewelery. Upstairs, ther are Flemish tapestries from the 17th century and a dozen from the 19th century based on the cartoons of Goya. Finally after exiting the cathedral, you'll find many beautiful doors, and archways. Be sure to see the Puerta de las Platerias, a romanesque doorway, with carvings of king David and the creation of Adam and Eve.
The Hostal de los Reyes Catolicos is a finely hotel furnished that would make excellant accomidations if funds allow. It is located right on the Paza de Obradoiro, double rooms are currently around 32,000 pesetas a night during high season, and 25,000 pesetas off season, which isn't too bad considering how expensive rooms in Paris and London are. The lobby is filled with antiques as well as some of the bedrooms. Paintings decerate the hallways and rooms, which have all been recently refurbished. Many of the rooms have casement windows that open onto a courtyard. The courtyards of Mark, Matthew, Luke and John are a beautiful place to take a early morning walk. There are two restaurants in the hotel, one casual, one more expensive and more formal. The formal one has a mideivel look to it and has high vaulted ceilings. The living room provides a wonderful place to wait for a seat in one of the tow restaurants or a nice place to have an after dinner drink. While there be sure to have the breakfast buffet. It includes dishes from all over as well as local favorites. A good place to end the day is on the stone bench that is in front of the Hotel, it provides a lovely view.
Shopping in the old town is also a good idea for spending a day. There is no need to worry about getting lost and many international and local crafts can be found all over the area. There is a large bookstore that carries English-language books and newspapers which is a good place to start off the shopping day.
If you would like to spend a day at the beach, the Isla De Arousa is an excellant island to spend it at. It is serviced by frequent ferry service from Vilanova, and has many beautiful beaches and also excellant sportfishing. It is the largest Island in Galicia and is also the closest.
Getting around Spain is fairly easy, the most expensive, but easiest way is to rent a autoemobile, there is a good network of roads going to every part of Spain starting at the Plaza Del Sol in the center of Madrid, which is also the geographic center of Spain. If you wish to save money the bus is also another good alternative, Spain has a very good network of public bus systems that go almost anywhere you would want to go. The train is also a very good way to travel. Europe is famous for its train system and A person can get anywhere he or she wants to go by train. Spains trains are fairly comfortable and travel at reasonably fast speeds so you can get where you want to get quickly.
Gabon An example for all of Africa
Gabon:An Example For All of
Africa
The country of Gabon is praised as being one of the most successful countries in Africa.
Gabon is a very diverse country in many ways. There are a variety of different tribes that call
Gabon home. Also, the land differs through out the county.
Gabon is one of the smaller countries of Africa with the area of 267,670 square miles.
Comparatively, this is the almost the same size as Colorado. The terrain of this tiny country
consists of narrow coastal plains; a hilly interior; and Savannah in the east and south. Much of
the interior is rain forests and is not arable. Only 1% of the land is arable The remaining land is
either meadows, permanent crops, or other land forms. (The World Fact Book 1995)
Gabon is one of the most thinly populated countries in Africa. It has a population of
approximately 1,155,000 (July 1995 est.) There are 11 people per square mile. The majority
of the Gabonese are of ages 15-64 years. The average life expectancy is 55.14 years. Women
live to be around 58, while men are usually around 52 when they die. This is why only 5% of
the population is older than 65. The infant mortality is lower than many other African countries,
92.4 per 1,000 live births. (The World Fact Book 1995)
As in most African countries, there are many Bantu tribes make up the ethnicity of the
country. There are four major tribal groups. The Fang, Eshira, Bapounou, and the Bateke.
(The World Fact Book)
The largest of these tribes is the Fang. They live mainly in the northern area of Gabon.
Many years ago they were considered the fiercest warriors of the area. Now, they dominate
many of the countries governmental positions. (World Book Encyclopedia page )
One of the earlier tribes that is since gone was the Omyene. They lived along the coast.
The Omyene are important because they were the first of the natives to meet the European
traders and missionaries. They played an important role of keeping peace with the Europeans.
(World Book Encyclopedia, 1992 page 2)
Along with there being so many different ethnic backgrounds, there are many religions as
well. The major religion is Christian,75 % of the population. About 1% of the population is
Muslim. The remaining 24% are animists. These include all of the tribal practices. (The World
Fact Book)
One of the reasons why Gabon has been so successful is that it has a stable government.
It is a republic and has multiple political parties. The capitol, Libreville ( aprox. 275,000
people), is where all of governmental issues are taken care of. (1996 World Almanac pages
764-65)
This is where the National assembly, Gabon's legislative branch, meets. Also this is where the
president lives. President Omar Bongo has been president for 29 years. He has been getting
reelected every 7 years since 1967. ( Clement's Encyclopedia of World Government 1996,
page 146)
As president, Mr. Bongo has many different jobs. He serves not only as chief
administrator but also as Head of the State. In order to help him to govern the country well he
gets to choose a council of ministers. Also out of the 120 representatives in the National
Assembly, 9 are appointed by the president. The others are voted in by the people. The
president can also adjourn the Assembly for up to 18 months in order to rule alone. ( World
Book Encyclopedia 1992 page 2)
Gabon has a peaceful history. They were first discovered by the Portuguese in the mid
15th century. The Portuguese didn't settle though. But during the 19th century France started
gaining interest in Gabon. The first French settlement was in 1839. In 1848, Gabon became
part of the French Congo. It wasn't until 1957 when Gabon became a French republic. Less
than five years later, on August 17, 1960, full independence was granted by the French to the
Republic of Gabon. That same year the first president was elected. (Clement's Encyclopedia
of World Government, 1996 pg. 146)
Yet another reason for Gabon's success is its economy. Gabon is an oil-rich country.
Oil accounts for 80% of their exports. Besides petroleum, substantial timber resources and
expansion of its agriculture section has allowed Gabon to grow economically. (Call and Post
(Cincinnati) 12/1/94 pp.PG.)
Gabon exports much of its natural wealth. The United states and France are the major
trading partners of Gabon. The top commodities are crude oil, timber, and manganese. The
major imports are foodstuffs, chemical products, and petroleum products. The major partners
for imports are France and other African countries. (World Fact Book, 1995)
The labor force is made up of 120,000 salaried workers. 65% of the people work in
the agriculture field. 30% work in industry and commerce The top industries in Gabon are food
and beverage, lumbering, textiles, and petroleum refining. The major agricultural cash crops are
cocoa, coffee, and palm oil. Livestock raising has yet to develop but, there is a small fishing
industry. (World Fact Book 1995)
The currency of Gabon, the CFA Franc, is not worth much compared to the dollar. The
exchange rate was for every US dollar there is 529.43 CFA Francs in 1995. The per capita
income is twice as much as most other African countries, $4,800. This means that the average
Gabonese household will make 2,540,784 Francs per year. (The World Fact Book 1995)
Despite its small size, Gabon is one of the most advanced and extensive air transport
networks. They have a total of 69 airports. Thirty eight of these airports have paved runways.
Even though the runways may be paved, many of the roads are not. Out of the 7,500
kilometers of highway, only 560 kilometers are paved. The remaining of the roads are crushed
stone or earth. (The World Fact Book 1995)
Gabon may seem like paradise, but it does have some problems. There has been a
recent outbreak of the Ebola virus, the first in Gabon's history. The outbreak started in a remote
rain forest area near the town of Booue, in central Gabon. It started when a family of 18 shared
a meal of chimpanzee meat. It had spread slowly to 14 other friends and family starting in July.
Luckily, the virus was contained by the swift action taken by the Gabonese government. They
prevented the disease from spreading by supplying the local hospitals with proper equipment.
This has been the only major problem in the past year, besides Maritime boundary disputes with
Equatorial Guinea. (Newsday, 10/12/96, pg. 6)
No other nation in Africa, possibly the whole world, has under gone such a spectacular
change in the twentieth century- from mud huts to mini-sky scrapers. Gabon's future looks very
bright. Soon enough they will be one of the leading countries of the world.
Bibliography
1."Gabon." Clement's Encyclopedia of World Government. 1996 ed.
2."Gabon." Netscape. Internet. http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/95fact/gb.html
Accessed December 15, 1996.
3."Gabon." The 1996 World Almanac and Fact Book. pp. 764-65. 1996 ed.
4."Gabon." The World Encyclopedia. 1995 ed.
5.Garrett, Laurie. "Ebola Again This Time in Gabon." Newsday. 12 October 1996: 6.
6. LeVine, Victor T. "Gabon." Encyclopedia Americana. 1995 ed.
Africa
The country of Gabon is praised as being one of the most successful countries in Africa.
Gabon is a very diverse country in many ways. There are a variety of different tribes that call
Gabon home. Also, the land differs through out the county.
Gabon is one of the smaller countries of Africa with the area of 267,670 square miles.
Comparatively, this is the almost the same size as Colorado. The terrain of this tiny country
consists of narrow coastal plains; a hilly interior; and Savannah in the east and south. Much of
the interior is rain forests and is not arable. Only 1% of the land is arable The remaining land is
either meadows, permanent crops, or other land forms. (The World Fact Book 1995)
Gabon is one of the most thinly populated countries in Africa. It has a population of
approximately 1,155,000 (July 1995 est.) There are 11 people per square mile. The majority
of the Gabonese are of ages 15-64 years. The average life expectancy is 55.14 years. Women
live to be around 58, while men are usually around 52 when they die. This is why only 5% of
the population is older than 65. The infant mortality is lower than many other African countries,
92.4 per 1,000 live births. (The World Fact Book 1995)
As in most African countries, there are many Bantu tribes make up the ethnicity of the
country. There are four major tribal groups. The Fang, Eshira, Bapounou, and the Bateke.
(The World Fact Book)
The largest of these tribes is the Fang. They live mainly in the northern area of Gabon.
Many years ago they were considered the fiercest warriors of the area. Now, they dominate
many of the countries governmental positions. (World Book Encyclopedia page )
One of the earlier tribes that is since gone was the Omyene. They lived along the coast.
The Omyene are important because they were the first of the natives to meet the European
traders and missionaries. They played an important role of keeping peace with the Europeans.
(World Book Encyclopedia, 1992 page 2)
Along with there being so many different ethnic backgrounds, there are many religions as
well. The major religion is Christian,75 % of the population. About 1% of the population is
Muslim. The remaining 24% are animists. These include all of the tribal practices. (The World
Fact Book)
One of the reasons why Gabon has been so successful is that it has a stable government.
It is a republic and has multiple political parties. The capitol, Libreville ( aprox. 275,000
people), is where all of governmental issues are taken care of. (1996 World Almanac pages
764-65)
This is where the National assembly, Gabon's legislative branch, meets. Also this is where the
president lives. President Omar Bongo has been president for 29 years. He has been getting
reelected every 7 years since 1967. ( Clement's Encyclopedia of World Government 1996,
page 146)
As president, Mr. Bongo has many different jobs. He serves not only as chief
administrator but also as Head of the State. In order to help him to govern the country well he
gets to choose a council of ministers. Also out of the 120 representatives in the National
Assembly, 9 are appointed by the president. The others are voted in by the people. The
president can also adjourn the Assembly for up to 18 months in order to rule alone. ( World
Book Encyclopedia 1992 page 2)
Gabon has a peaceful history. They were first discovered by the Portuguese in the mid
15th century. The Portuguese didn't settle though. But during the 19th century France started
gaining interest in Gabon. The first French settlement was in 1839. In 1848, Gabon became
part of the French Congo. It wasn't until 1957 when Gabon became a French republic. Less
than five years later, on August 17, 1960, full independence was granted by the French to the
Republic of Gabon. That same year the first president was elected. (Clement's Encyclopedia
of World Government, 1996 pg. 146)
Yet another reason for Gabon's success is its economy. Gabon is an oil-rich country.
Oil accounts for 80% of their exports. Besides petroleum, substantial timber resources and
expansion of its agriculture section has allowed Gabon to grow economically. (Call and Post
(Cincinnati) 12/1/94 pp.PG.)
Gabon exports much of its natural wealth. The United states and France are the major
trading partners of Gabon. The top commodities are crude oil, timber, and manganese. The
major imports are foodstuffs, chemical products, and petroleum products. The major partners
for imports are France and other African countries. (World Fact Book, 1995)
The labor force is made up of 120,000 salaried workers. 65% of the people work in
the agriculture field. 30% work in industry and commerce The top industries in Gabon are food
and beverage, lumbering, textiles, and petroleum refining. The major agricultural cash crops are
cocoa, coffee, and palm oil. Livestock raising has yet to develop but, there is a small fishing
industry. (World Fact Book 1995)
The currency of Gabon, the CFA Franc, is not worth much compared to the dollar. The
exchange rate was for every US dollar there is 529.43 CFA Francs in 1995. The per capita
income is twice as much as most other African countries, $4,800. This means that the average
Gabonese household will make 2,540,784 Francs per year. (The World Fact Book 1995)
Despite its small size, Gabon is one of the most advanced and extensive air transport
networks. They have a total of 69 airports. Thirty eight of these airports have paved runways.
Even though the runways may be paved, many of the roads are not. Out of the 7,500
kilometers of highway, only 560 kilometers are paved. The remaining of the roads are crushed
stone or earth. (The World Fact Book 1995)
Gabon may seem like paradise, but it does have some problems. There has been a
recent outbreak of the Ebola virus, the first in Gabon's history. The outbreak started in a remote
rain forest area near the town of Booue, in central Gabon. It started when a family of 18 shared
a meal of chimpanzee meat. It had spread slowly to 14 other friends and family starting in July.
Luckily, the virus was contained by the swift action taken by the Gabonese government. They
prevented the disease from spreading by supplying the local hospitals with proper equipment.
This has been the only major problem in the past year, besides Maritime boundary disputes with
Equatorial Guinea. (Newsday, 10/12/96, pg. 6)
No other nation in Africa, possibly the whole world, has under gone such a spectacular
change in the twentieth century- from mud huts to mini-sky scrapers. Gabon's future looks very
bright. Soon enough they will be one of the leading countries of the world.
Bibliography
1."Gabon." Clement's Encyclopedia of World Government. 1996 ed.
2."Gabon." Netscape. Internet. http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/95fact/gb.html
Accessed December 15, 1996.
3."Gabon." The 1996 World Almanac and Fact Book. pp. 764-65. 1996 ed.
4."Gabon." The World Encyclopedia. 1995 ed.
5.Garrett, Laurie. "Ebola Again This Time in Gabon." Newsday. 12 October 1996: 6.
6. LeVine, Victor T. "Gabon." Encyclopedia Americana. 1995 ed.
Fossil Fuel Consumption CO2 and its impact on Global Climate
Fossil Fuel Consumption, CO2 and its impact on Global Climate
Background:
At the beginning of human history, we had to satisfy our energy needs (for food, heat and movement) by using our own muscle power and gathering or hunting naturally available plants, animals and wood. Each stage in the evolution of human society (the development of farming, domestication of animals, harnessing of wind and water power) increased the average per capita energy use, but it was the Industrial Revolution and the exploitation of fossil fuels which marked the transformation of societies into the energy-intensive economies of today.
Since the eighteenth century the industrialising countries have come to rely on non-renewable energy resources, and at present about 80 per cent (Myers, 1994) of the world's commercial energy is derived from oil, coal and gas. Although it has been observed that the growth of energy consumption is closely correlated with the increases in gross national product thus our economic development, the major sources of energy (that is fossil fuels) are 'stock resources'. Fossil fuels are consumed by use and the current consumption patterns are non-sustainable. It is recognised that energy conservation and the development of renewable energy sources will be needed to sustain economic growth.
The quantity of ultimately recoverable fossil fuels is limited by geology and remains a matter of suspicion, but the view of the 1970s that scarcity was imminent is still popular. It is the 1973 Oil Crisis marked the transition from abundant, low-cost energy to an era of increasing prices and scarcity. Today concerns over scarcity have been overtaken by the question of whether human beings can afford to meet the environmental costs of continued fossil fuel consumption. One of the most widespread concern related to global climatic changes.
Introduction:
Climate represents normal weather condition of an area over a period of many years. This is in contrast to weather which is the day to day changes in the atmosphere. It is now realised that our global "climatic normals" had fluctuated in the past millions of years which was nowhere related to human activities. Nevertheless, with the increasing human population and our reliance on fossil fuels since the last century, we have definitely 'participated' in the climatic changes which are taking place to a certain extent.
Since the Stockholm Conference in 1972, more and more attentions have been drawn to the issue of global warming, which is the increase in global temperature caused by the atmospheric greenhouse effect. We have greenhouse effect because some trace components of our atmosphere re-absorb and retain certain wavelengths of heat radiated from the Earth's surface, and the burning of fossil fuels have increased the tropospheric concentration of all of these compounds, especially carbon dioxide # (CO2).
The Greenhouse Gas 3/4 CO2: A Product of Fossil Fuel Consumption:
'Pollution' of the atmosphere from the consumption of fossil fuels has many effects. Perhaps the best know are modifications that have led to changes in carbon dioxide.
In some ways carbon dioxide cannot be classified as an air pollutant as it is reasonably abundant in the natural atmosphere (0.03%), and it is a basic product of all fossil fuel consumption. Although the chemical reaction in combustion of fossil fuels is not always simple, it can be summarised as the release of the carbon combined with atmospheric oxygen atoms to form carbon dioxide. This process is often referred as respiration, such that:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + heat (r) 6CO2 + 6H2O
Here, we see that carbon dioxide is not an impurity, as a matter of fact, life on the earth is somehow depending on this gas, either directly through photosynthesis (plants) or indirectly via the food-chain (animals). Nevertheless, this gas plays an important role in the heat balance of the earth, because of its distinctive heat-storage properties.
We often refer carbon dioxide as a 'greenhouse gas', as the name implies, it is a kind of material that would absorb and retain heat. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is transparent to the sun's short-wave radiation, which is primarily in the ultra-violent and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (l=0.1-1 mm). After the incident radiation has penetrated the atmosphere and been absorbed by the earth's surface, the earth re-radiates the thermal energy; however, because the earth's surface temperature is relatively low, the wavelengths of the terrestrial radiation are now in the infrared (l=4-20 mm). Carbon dioxide strongly absorbs radiation in the 7 to 14-mm wavelength region, which overlaps with the peak of intensity of the outgoing radiation. The net effect of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is to prevent some of the thermal energy from escaping from the earth; hence, it leads to a heating of the atmosphere. In general, the more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the more heat that will be trapped, and a warmer atmosphere will result.
Change in Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Warming:
The burning of peat, coal, petroleum or natural gas (all carbonaceous materials) virtually returns the atmospheric carbon that had been removed hundreds of million years ago by trees and plants in their process of photosynthesis. Thus in a sudden, relatively brief span of time, less than two centuries, the contemporary atmosphere has become burdened with vast additional quantities of a strong infrared absorber, because of the utilisation of fossil fuels in this period. It is believed that the level of carbon dioxide has been increasing. Measurements of the CO2 concentration have been carried out at an observatory on Mauna Loa, whose data is most quoted and most complete. Observations show a steady rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide of about 1 ppm per year over the past quarter of a century. At the South Pole station, the upward CO2 trend closely parallels that at Mauna Loa (Kraushaar, 1988). Forecasts based on the current rate of fossil fuel consumption suggest that by the year 2065 the CO2 concentration will increase from its present value of 350 ppm to a value of 600 ppm. It has been estimated that the pre-industrial level of carbon dioxide have been as low as 260-70 ppm by volume (Goudie, 1994). Thus, it appears that the industrial world is increasing the atmospheric CO2 contents by an appreciable amount.
It is arguable that the increase in CO2 concentration may not be induced by fossil fuel consumption since the carbon cycle is always operating, it could be due largely to a reduction of the biomass. However, Kraushaar and Ristinen suggested that the net biotic pool of CO2 has not been modified sufficiently to account for the carbon dioxide increase. They said that, "Although there has been cutting of forests, there has also been intensive agriculture established by irrigation of land that was previously not very productive." and the combustion of fossil fuels is that major source of the increase in atmospheric CO2. Moreover, as the amount of fossil fuels consumed each year is approximately known, the CO2 released can therefore be estimated. Together with the level of CO2 concentration obtained in various stations in the earth, it is calculated that 52% of the 14 billion tones of carbon dioxide is being retained in the atmosphere per year; and 37% sinks into the oceans, whereas the depositional locations of the remaining 11% remain mysterious at present (Kraushaar, 1988).
The next question comes with the effect of these carbon dioxide increases on global climate and here is where the controversy lies. Vostok ice-core data suggest a close correlation between CO2 levels and mean surface temperature over the past 160,000 years (Benarde, 1992), but scientist still cannot figure out whether carbon dioxide leads temperature shifts or temperature changes leads CO2 shifts. There may even be a third factor provoke both CO2 and temperature changes. Moreover, the upward trend of the contemporary global warming only lasts for 15 years (Tolba, 1992). There have been much fluctuation on temperature before 1900. For example, in Europe, particularly low temperature normals have been experienced during the period 1430 to 1850 A.D. Therefore, 'global warming' could just be another natural fluctuation in temperature. At present time, using our current understanding on the atmosphere that based on hypothesises and models, we cannot yet make accurate predictions on the future climate.
Conclusion:
Although there are still many problems regarding the relationship of carbon dioxide and global climatic changes and even global warming itself, there is little question that climate (temperature) and CO2 are inextricablely linked (from the ice-core studies) and the temperature of the earth has been increasing over the last decade. More on that, it is a fact that the burning of fossil fuels do release infrared-absorbing carbon dioxide to our atmosphere. Therefore, it is just a logical conclusion that the greenhouse is here, as it always does. It appears that there is excessive heating within the greenhouse which is induced by our increasing rate of fossil fuel consumption, and the problems that lies behind global climatic change are far reaching . Perhaps, the real limit to our fossil fuel consumption will be the CO2 problem but not the size of the resource. A Chinese proverb says that "prevention is better than cure." Approaches to energy conservation could be the key.
Bibliography:
Benarde, M. A., 1992, Global Warning... Global Warming, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 52-65.
Goudie, A., 1994, The Human Impact on the Natural Environment, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 301-7.
Kraushaar, J. J. & Ristinen, R. A., Energy and Problems of a Technical Society, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 394-400.
Myers, N., 1994, The Gaia Atlas of Planet Management, London: Gaia Books Limited, 96-113.
Tolba, M. K., 1992, The World Environment 1972-1992, London: Chapman & Hall, 61-71.
Background:
At the beginning of human history, we had to satisfy our energy needs (for food, heat and movement) by using our own muscle power and gathering or hunting naturally available plants, animals and wood. Each stage in the evolution of human society (the development of farming, domestication of animals, harnessing of wind and water power) increased the average per capita energy use, but it was the Industrial Revolution and the exploitation of fossil fuels which marked the transformation of societies into the energy-intensive economies of today.
Since the eighteenth century the industrialising countries have come to rely on non-renewable energy resources, and at present about 80 per cent (Myers, 1994) of the world's commercial energy is derived from oil, coal and gas. Although it has been observed that the growth of energy consumption is closely correlated with the increases in gross national product thus our economic development, the major sources of energy (that is fossil fuels) are 'stock resources'. Fossil fuels are consumed by use and the current consumption patterns are non-sustainable. It is recognised that energy conservation and the development of renewable energy sources will be needed to sustain economic growth.
The quantity of ultimately recoverable fossil fuels is limited by geology and remains a matter of suspicion, but the view of the 1970s that scarcity was imminent is still popular. It is the 1973 Oil Crisis marked the transition from abundant, low-cost energy to an era of increasing prices and scarcity. Today concerns over scarcity have been overtaken by the question of whether human beings can afford to meet the environmental costs of continued fossil fuel consumption. One of the most widespread concern related to global climatic changes.
Introduction:
Climate represents normal weather condition of an area over a period of many years. This is in contrast to weather which is the day to day changes in the atmosphere. It is now realised that our global "climatic normals" had fluctuated in the past millions of years which was nowhere related to human activities. Nevertheless, with the increasing human population and our reliance on fossil fuels since the last century, we have definitely 'participated' in the climatic changes which are taking place to a certain extent.
Since the Stockholm Conference in 1972, more and more attentions have been drawn to the issue of global warming, which is the increase in global temperature caused by the atmospheric greenhouse effect. We have greenhouse effect because some trace components of our atmosphere re-absorb and retain certain wavelengths of heat radiated from the Earth's surface, and the burning of fossil fuels have increased the tropospheric concentration of all of these compounds, especially carbon dioxide # (CO2).
The Greenhouse Gas 3/4 CO2: A Product of Fossil Fuel Consumption:
'Pollution' of the atmosphere from the consumption of fossil fuels has many effects. Perhaps the best know are modifications that have led to changes in carbon dioxide.
In some ways carbon dioxide cannot be classified as an air pollutant as it is reasonably abundant in the natural atmosphere (0.03%), and it is a basic product of all fossil fuel consumption. Although the chemical reaction in combustion of fossil fuels is not always simple, it can be summarised as the release of the carbon combined with atmospheric oxygen atoms to form carbon dioxide. This process is often referred as respiration, such that:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + heat (r) 6CO2 + 6H2O
Here, we see that carbon dioxide is not an impurity, as a matter of fact, life on the earth is somehow depending on this gas, either directly through photosynthesis (plants) or indirectly via the food-chain (animals). Nevertheless, this gas plays an important role in the heat balance of the earth, because of its distinctive heat-storage properties.
We often refer carbon dioxide as a 'greenhouse gas', as the name implies, it is a kind of material that would absorb and retain heat. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is transparent to the sun's short-wave radiation, which is primarily in the ultra-violent and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (l=0.1-1 mm). After the incident radiation has penetrated the atmosphere and been absorbed by the earth's surface, the earth re-radiates the thermal energy; however, because the earth's surface temperature is relatively low, the wavelengths of the terrestrial radiation are now in the infrared (l=4-20 mm). Carbon dioxide strongly absorbs radiation in the 7 to 14-mm wavelength region, which overlaps with the peak of intensity of the outgoing radiation. The net effect of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is to prevent some of the thermal energy from escaping from the earth; hence, it leads to a heating of the atmosphere. In general, the more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the more heat that will be trapped, and a warmer atmosphere will result.
Change in Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Warming:
The burning of peat, coal, petroleum or natural gas (all carbonaceous materials) virtually returns the atmospheric carbon that had been removed hundreds of million years ago by trees and plants in their process of photosynthesis. Thus in a sudden, relatively brief span of time, less than two centuries, the contemporary atmosphere has become burdened with vast additional quantities of a strong infrared absorber, because of the utilisation of fossil fuels in this period. It is believed that the level of carbon dioxide has been increasing. Measurements of the CO2 concentration have been carried out at an observatory on Mauna Loa, whose data is most quoted and most complete. Observations show a steady rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide of about 1 ppm per year over the past quarter of a century. At the South Pole station, the upward CO2 trend closely parallels that at Mauna Loa (Kraushaar, 1988). Forecasts based on the current rate of fossil fuel consumption suggest that by the year 2065 the CO2 concentration will increase from its present value of 350 ppm to a value of 600 ppm. It has been estimated that the pre-industrial level of carbon dioxide have been as low as 260-70 ppm by volume (Goudie, 1994). Thus, it appears that the industrial world is increasing the atmospheric CO2 contents by an appreciable amount.
It is arguable that the increase in CO2 concentration may not be induced by fossil fuel consumption since the carbon cycle is always operating, it could be due largely to a reduction of the biomass. However, Kraushaar and Ristinen suggested that the net biotic pool of CO2 has not been modified sufficiently to account for the carbon dioxide increase. They said that, "Although there has been cutting of forests, there has also been intensive agriculture established by irrigation of land that was previously not very productive." and the combustion of fossil fuels is that major source of the increase in atmospheric CO2. Moreover, as the amount of fossil fuels consumed each year is approximately known, the CO2 released can therefore be estimated. Together with the level of CO2 concentration obtained in various stations in the earth, it is calculated that 52% of the 14 billion tones of carbon dioxide is being retained in the atmosphere per year; and 37% sinks into the oceans, whereas the depositional locations of the remaining 11% remain mysterious at present (Kraushaar, 1988).
The next question comes with the effect of these carbon dioxide increases on global climate and here is where the controversy lies. Vostok ice-core data suggest a close correlation between CO2 levels and mean surface temperature over the past 160,000 years (Benarde, 1992), but scientist still cannot figure out whether carbon dioxide leads temperature shifts or temperature changes leads CO2 shifts. There may even be a third factor provoke both CO2 and temperature changes. Moreover, the upward trend of the contemporary global warming only lasts for 15 years (Tolba, 1992). There have been much fluctuation on temperature before 1900. For example, in Europe, particularly low temperature normals have been experienced during the period 1430 to 1850 A.D. Therefore, 'global warming' could just be another natural fluctuation in temperature. At present time, using our current understanding on the atmosphere that based on hypothesises and models, we cannot yet make accurate predictions on the future climate.
Conclusion:
Although there are still many problems regarding the relationship of carbon dioxide and global climatic changes and even global warming itself, there is little question that climate (temperature) and CO2 are inextricablely linked (from the ice-core studies) and the temperature of the earth has been increasing over the last decade. More on that, it is a fact that the burning of fossil fuels do release infrared-absorbing carbon dioxide to our atmosphere. Therefore, it is just a logical conclusion that the greenhouse is here, as it always does. It appears that there is excessive heating within the greenhouse which is induced by our increasing rate of fossil fuel consumption, and the problems that lies behind global climatic change are far reaching . Perhaps, the real limit to our fossil fuel consumption will be the CO2 problem but not the size of the resource. A Chinese proverb says that "prevention is better than cure." Approaches to energy conservation could be the key.
Bibliography:
Benarde, M. A., 1992, Global Warning... Global Warming, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 52-65.
Goudie, A., 1994, The Human Impact on the Natural Environment, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 301-7.
Kraushaar, J. J. & Ristinen, R. A., Energy and Problems of a Technical Society, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 394-400.
Myers, N., 1994, The Gaia Atlas of Planet Management, London: Gaia Books Limited, 96-113.
Tolba, M. K., 1992, The World Environment 1972-1992, London: Chapman & Hall, 61-71.
Flint Michigan
A strong culture is one that has dependency upon itself along with outside resources. The economy is hard if nearly impossible to predict, and this puts severe strain on a community that is dependent on one employer. Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and Flint are examples of these types of communities. When a manufacturing process or company pulls out of a city, many problems arise. Flint is a city which has had a significant portion of an industry leave. GM used to be the heart of Flint, until the decision to downsize was made. This caused approximately 40 thousand of the 80 thousand GM employees to loose their jobs. Recently there was a debate pitting two sides of an issue. The question consisted of the decline of General Motors in Flint. Is it a catastrophe or does it provide an opportunity for the community. Members of the panel included Bill Donahue (pro-opportunity), Larry Thompson (pro-opportunity), Dorothy Reynolds (catastrophe supporter) and Ruben Burks (catastrophe supporter).
In the beginning, there were many advantages of having GM as the dominate employer in Flint. The quantity of GM jobs in Flint provided for an economic boom town in the 1960's and 1970's. Money from General Motors trickled down from the workers to every part of the economy of Genesse county. The population was on the rise which meant more homes, roads, and businesses. It was all to good to be true. When Roger Smith (then President of GM) decided to relocate numerous jobs from the Buick City, it was time for Flint to pay the piper. The large dependency on GM brought upon a rapid decline in the economy unparalleled by any city in United States history.
The removal of jobs from GM caused many problems in Flint. Dororthy Reynolds gave many statistics which proved how much the decline of GM hurt Flint. She pointed out that since the removal of GM jobs, Flint has become the 2nd most dangerous city in America while being the 6th most segregated. The lack of economic development since the early 1980's has also had a terrible impact on the children of Flint and Genesse county. Thirty percent of the children in Genesse county live at or below the poverty level where the graduation rate in the schools has shrunk to 57%. Mrs. Reynolds also pointed out the fact that only three new home developments have been started in the last 18 months. Ruben Burks was also invited to share his opinions on the catastrophe surrounding Flint. Unfortunately for the audience, his relationship with the United Auto Workers was at a level to where he couldn't expand on his negative GM opinions.
The other side of the issue brought Bill Donahue and Larry Thompson to the podium. First to speak was Mr. Donahue. He brought several points of opportunity for Flint. The first point concentrated on the stabilization of GM employment in Genesse county. Secondly, he pointed out the need to diversify the economy. His third point was to align the schools, colleges, and churches to work together for the common goal. Larry Thompson also had several points of his own on the opportunity that Flint possess. Again, the need to diversify the economy was a major point. He pointed out that the finger pointing between the two sides is not productive and is actually inhibiting Flint from looking past what happened in the early 1980's. Mr. Thompson's quote of "Growing as a person is when you suffer some sort of loss" provides the opportunistic attitude that is lacking in the Flint.
Both sides presented arguments that supported their respective feelings. It would be great if the majority of the citizens of the county possessed some sort of opportunistic attitude. For instance, the diversification of the economy will be very difficult as many of the former GM workers will not be willing to work for less than $18 dollars an hour. Unfortunately, many of the new jobs, when and if they come to Flint, will pay quite a bit less than General Motors. The inclusion of the poor community will also take time as many of the lower class would prefer to milk the welfare and public assistance programs. Perhaps the only sure thing about Flint is that it will take time to heal the wounds left by the General Motors Corporation.
In the beginning, there were many advantages of having GM as the dominate employer in Flint. The quantity of GM jobs in Flint provided for an economic boom town in the 1960's and 1970's. Money from General Motors trickled down from the workers to every part of the economy of Genesse county. The population was on the rise which meant more homes, roads, and businesses. It was all to good to be true. When Roger Smith (then President of GM) decided to relocate numerous jobs from the Buick City, it was time for Flint to pay the piper. The large dependency on GM brought upon a rapid decline in the economy unparalleled by any city in United States history.
The removal of jobs from GM caused many problems in Flint. Dororthy Reynolds gave many statistics which proved how much the decline of GM hurt Flint. She pointed out that since the removal of GM jobs, Flint has become the 2nd most dangerous city in America while being the 6th most segregated. The lack of economic development since the early 1980's has also had a terrible impact on the children of Flint and Genesse county. Thirty percent of the children in Genesse county live at or below the poverty level where the graduation rate in the schools has shrunk to 57%. Mrs. Reynolds also pointed out the fact that only three new home developments have been started in the last 18 months. Ruben Burks was also invited to share his opinions on the catastrophe surrounding Flint. Unfortunately for the audience, his relationship with the United Auto Workers was at a level to where he couldn't expand on his negative GM opinions.
The other side of the issue brought Bill Donahue and Larry Thompson to the podium. First to speak was Mr. Donahue. He brought several points of opportunity for Flint. The first point concentrated on the stabilization of GM employment in Genesse county. Secondly, he pointed out the need to diversify the economy. His third point was to align the schools, colleges, and churches to work together for the common goal. Larry Thompson also had several points of his own on the opportunity that Flint possess. Again, the need to diversify the economy was a major point. He pointed out that the finger pointing between the two sides is not productive and is actually inhibiting Flint from looking past what happened in the early 1980's. Mr. Thompson's quote of "Growing as a person is when you suffer some sort of loss" provides the opportunistic attitude that is lacking in the Flint.
Both sides presented arguments that supported their respective feelings. It would be great if the majority of the citizens of the county possessed some sort of opportunistic attitude. For instance, the diversification of the economy will be very difficult as many of the former GM workers will not be willing to work for less than $18 dollars an hour. Unfortunately, many of the new jobs, when and if they come to Flint, will pay quite a bit less than General Motors. The inclusion of the poor community will also take time as many of the lower class would prefer to milk the welfare and public assistance programs. Perhaps the only sure thing about Flint is that it will take time to heal the wounds left by the General Motors Corporation.
Facts about China
Facts about China
1.)21% of China's population live in urban areas and 79% live in rural areas.
2.)China's national anthem is the "The East is Red."
3.)The capital of China is Beiming or else Peking.
4.)The name of the currency in China is Yuan.
5.)The life expectancy in China for males is 65.5 and for females is 69.5.
6.)The literacy rate in China is 80%
7.)The main religions in China are Atheistic, Buddhism, and Daoism.
8.)In the 5fh century AD the Chinese had calculated the value of pi more than 10 decimal places.
9.)Gunpowder first blew up iun Alchemist's furnace around 800Ad and was quickly put to military use.
10.)China's official name is People's Replubic of China (PRC).
11.)China's total population is more than 1,000,000,000 which makes up more than 1/5 of the world's population.
12.)China cover's 3.7 million square miles.
13.)China's three largest cities are Shanghai, Beijing, and Tianjin. They are not part of any province.
14.)The Chinese language has more than 50,000 different words.
15.)The Chinese have problem's making typewriters.
16.)The Chinese read their books from top to bottom, and from right to left.
17.)Pottery is one of China's most famous kinds of arts.
18.)The Forbidden City is inside Imperial City. Imperial City is inside the Inner City. The Inner City is inside Peking.
19.)China is the third largest country in area after Russia and Canada.
20.)In 1949 communists took power of China.
21.)Ther are 3400 off shore islands.
22.)The earlist recorded history of China is 3500 years ago.
23.)The great paddlefish, giant panda, Chinese water deer and the salamander are in China, but extinct elsewhere.
24.)It is estimated that there are more than 35 cities in China with a population of more than one million.
25.)Mount Everest is 29,028 feet high and is the highest point on Earth.
26.)About 3/4 of all people are farmers.
27.)China has the world's oldest civilization.
28.)The Chinese invented gunpowder, paper, porcelain, and silk cloth.
29.)About 94% of China's population belong to the Han nationality.
30.)China has the biggest army, but not the strongest.
31.)The Great Wall of China was built to keep enemies out of China. It is about 4,000 miles long.
32.)The Peking Man lived in China about 500,000 years ago.
33.)The Chinese people call their country Chung-kuo.
34.)Until recently, China was cut off by either mountains, The Great Wall of China or else water.
35.)In 1979 the US and China endded a 30 year break between the two countries.
36.)Most people in China eat rice.
37.)Most people in China live crowded in the eastern third of the country.
38.)The Communist Party are trying to overcome poverty by the year 2000.
39.)China's flag was adopted in 1949.
40.)About 35 million people belong to the Communist Party.
1.)21% of China's population live in urban areas and 79% live in rural areas.
2.)China's national anthem is the "The East is Red."
3.)The capital of China is Beiming or else Peking.
4.)The name of the currency in China is Yuan.
5.)The life expectancy in China for males is 65.5 and for females is 69.5.
6.)The literacy rate in China is 80%
7.)The main religions in China are Atheistic, Buddhism, and Daoism.
8.)In the 5fh century AD the Chinese had calculated the value of pi more than 10 decimal places.
9.)Gunpowder first blew up iun Alchemist's furnace around 800Ad and was quickly put to military use.
10.)China's official name is People's Replubic of China (PRC).
11.)China's total population is more than 1,000,000,000 which makes up more than 1/5 of the world's population.
12.)China cover's 3.7 million square miles.
13.)China's three largest cities are Shanghai, Beijing, and Tianjin. They are not part of any province.
14.)The Chinese language has more than 50,000 different words.
15.)The Chinese have problem's making typewriters.
16.)The Chinese read their books from top to bottom, and from right to left.
17.)Pottery is one of China's most famous kinds of arts.
18.)The Forbidden City is inside Imperial City. Imperial City is inside the Inner City. The Inner City is inside Peking.
19.)China is the third largest country in area after Russia and Canada.
20.)In 1949 communists took power of China.
21.)Ther are 3400 off shore islands.
22.)The earlist recorded history of China is 3500 years ago.
23.)The great paddlefish, giant panda, Chinese water deer and the salamander are in China, but extinct elsewhere.
24.)It is estimated that there are more than 35 cities in China with a population of more than one million.
25.)Mount Everest is 29,028 feet high and is the highest point on Earth.
26.)About 3/4 of all people are farmers.
27.)China has the world's oldest civilization.
28.)The Chinese invented gunpowder, paper, porcelain, and silk cloth.
29.)About 94% of China's population belong to the Han nationality.
30.)China has the biggest army, but not the strongest.
31.)The Great Wall of China was built to keep enemies out of China. It is about 4,000 miles long.
32.)The Peking Man lived in China about 500,000 years ago.
33.)The Chinese people call their country Chung-kuo.
34.)Until recently, China was cut off by either mountains, The Great Wall of China or else water.
35.)In 1979 the US and China endded a 30 year break between the two countries.
36.)Most people in China eat rice.
37.)Most people in China live crowded in the eastern third of the country.
38.)The Communist Party are trying to overcome poverty by the year 2000.
39.)China's flag was adopted in 1949.
40.)About 35 million people belong to the Communist Party.
Enviormental Risk
The 20th century, especially in the second half, has been one of rapid change in the Earth's environment. The impact of humans on the physical form and functioning of the Earth have reached levels that are global in character, and have done so at an increasingly mounting speed. 20 years ago the environment was seen as posing a threat to the future of humanity as death rates from natural hazards had increased dramatically since the turn of the century. The Earth though has always been plagued by natural disasters. Now, with the world population growing at a rapid rate more people are living in hazard prone areas. Events which may have gone unnoticed previously, only become hazards when there is intervention with humans and their lifestyle. With the discovery of the ozone hole in the 1980's attention was now more focused on the threat humans were posing to the environment. With scientific evidence to back up pessimistic predictions of our future, most people, through media coverage, political pressures and general concern now see the environment as being truly threatened by human progress and in desperate need of help.
Natural hazards have been defined as "...extreme geophysical events greatly exceeding normal human expectations in terms of their magnitude or frequency and causing significant damage to man and his works with possible loss of life." (Heathcote,1979,p.3.). A natural hazard occurs when there is an interaction between a system of human resource management and extreme or rare natural phenomena (Chapman,1994). As McCall, Laming and Scott (1991) argue, strictly speaking there is no hazard unless humans are affected in some way. Yet the line between natural and human-made hazards is a finely drawn one and usually overlapping. Doornkamp ( cited in McCall et al, 1992) argues that many hazards are human induced or at least made worse by the intervention of humans.
In the 1970's, natural hazards were an important subject of topical study, as the nature of their impact on human populations and what they valued was increasing in frequency at quite a rapid rate (Burton, Kates, White, 1978). During the 75 years after 1900 the population of the earth increased by a staggering 2.25 billion people. People who needed land on which to live and work. As the population rose people were dispersed in more places and in larger numbers than before. The predominant movement of people being from farm to town or city (Burton et al,1978.). It is this growing world population, Burton et al (1978) suggest, that is the main reason behind why hazards are increasing and were seen to pose such a threat to humankind in the 70's. While the average number of disasters remained relatively constant at about 30 per year, death rates climbed significantly.
As the growing world population requires the cultivation of land more prone to hazards, more people and property are thus exposed to the risk of disaster than ever before, and as Stow (1992) argues, the death toll inevitably rises. An example that shows the concern that humans faced from the environment can be exemplified by the Bangladesh cyclone of 1970, which killed approximately 250,000 people. Although part of the reason for so many deaths can be put down to a then poorly understood process, land-use can also be implicated. Because of a rising population, land in Bangladesh was reclaimed by the government and held against the sea. People in large numbers were then encouraged to occupy the area. An area which turned out to be one of great risk. Major disruption was inevitable Burton et al (1978) argue whenever population was in the path of such forces. Had reasonable measures been taken in advance of the storm, the material damage, loss of life and social dislocation could have been seriously reduced.
In the 1990's we live in an information age. Today we have remarkable monitoring and predictive capabilities for natural hazards. The use of advanced telecommunications and emergency management, together with the exploitation of geographic information systems in hazard mitigation has greatly reduced the extent to which natural hazards are seen as a threat to people in the 90's (Chapman et al, 1994). Loss of life and property from natural disasters continue to rise though as the population of the world rises and puts more demands on the environment for land resources. White (1974) argues that environmental risk may be considered to be primarily a function of the value systems of a society. How dangerous a natural hazard is, is not measured in absolute terms but in how dangerous it is perceived to be. 20 years ago, technology hadn't advanced to the level at which natural hazards could be properly understood and prepared for (Perry,1981). Chapman (1994) argues that in technologically advanced societies we have "...greatly accepted the hazards inherent in the comforts of life that technology provides and learned to live with hazards." (p.156).In the 1970's, using Heathcote's (1979) definition, "normal human expectations" were lower than they are today therefore causing such concern for the environmental threat to humans.
20 years ago it was the spectacular, rapid onset, intensive hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes, cyclones and floods that caught the media headlines and caused concern for the future of humankind from the environment. Today it is the slow onset, pervasive hazards that have caught the attention of the whole world, and in the long term pose more threat than the intensive hazards (Chapman,1994). Space exploration has given us an awareness that it is human activity that is contributing to this long term threat and the future of the planet as a whole (McCall,1992).
It has been suggested that when the history of the 20th century is written, environmentalism will be judged to be the single most important social movement of the period (Brenton,1994). While the threat from humans to the environment has been an issue for some time, the conflict has been sharpened by the emergence of new concerns; ozone depletion, global warming, loss of biological diversity and the destruction of the rainforests. Prior to the late 20th century the main insults to the environment were evident, people could see smog and pollution and notice animals missing from the forests. These new issues involve a new type of danger to the environment (Suzuki,1990). Dangers which are much less visible and often will not materialise for years to come. It is primarily because of scientific predictions that we know about them and without science would have probably gone largely unrecognised until it was too late for action to be taken (McKibben,1989). These new dangers are ones that can be measured and enumerated by scientists. The belief that the earth has been seriously damaged and is being damaged more rapidly than ever before is a far more prevalent and respectable belief than ever before. It is a belief that is growing in popularity (Meyer and Turner,1995). Johnson, Tayor and Watts (1995) point out that:
"... increasingly the assumption that the earth is being
improved requires a defence and an explanation, while
the assumption that it is being dangerously degraded
requires none." (p.304).
Coping with global environmental change has come to appear one of humankinds most pressing problems.
Perhaps the most powerful representative of this new 'global consciousness' has been as Brenton (1994) suggests, the 'Earthrise' photograph taken by the Apollo II in 1969. As people are able to see the earth as a whole for the first time, they are also able to see more clearly that which ecologists have always stated, that everything on the earth is tied to everything else (Pearce,1995). Since it's capture , the 'earthrise' photograph has been extensively exploited by exponents of the 'fragile planet' view of the human experience. Between 1970 and 1990 global population rose from 3.7 billion to approximately 5.3 billion people. Energy consumption grew even faster, while nuclear production of electricity rose twentyfold. The number of vehicles more than doubled and by the early 1990's people were consuming about 40% of the entire global 'natural product' from the photosynthesis of plants (Brenton,1994). Tropical rainforests have been devastated and the productivity of more than 1.2 million hectares of land has been lowered by human activities. 20% of the CO2 in the atmosphere has been put there by humans, largely through C.F.C production, and it has been C.F.C's that have created one of the most disturbing changes to the environment, that of the discovery of the hole in the ozone layer and the theory of global warming (McKibben,1987).
Ozone is a molecule of oxygen, made up of three oxygen atoms and it's existence is essential for many life supporting systems. Ozone occurs at two levels in the atmosphere; the stratosphere and the troposphere. In the stratosphere it is concentrated into the 'ozone layer', and it is this concentration that protects the earth from U.V radiation from the sun, taking out 90% of U.V rays. It's depletion was first recognised in 1985, when a gaping hole was found over Antarctica. By 1989 it became clear that C.F.C's and halons were indisputably implicated in the collapse over Antarctica, that ozone had diminished over heavily populated areas of the world and that further significant depletion would occur if extreme action was not taken to stop ozone-depleting substances (Kevies,1992).
Apprehension of global warming on the other hand, rests on the theory that high concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere trap radiation reflected from the earth, creating a 'greenhouse effect'. This then leads to an increase in temperature in the region close to the planets surface. The current attention given to the climatic impacts of CO2 owes much to the weather of the 1980's (Schnieder,1989). The 80's were already the warmest on record, when the hot spring and summer of 1988 came along, bringing with it drought, crop disasters and fire hazards. Suddenly the 'greenhouse effect' was given major consideration by Press front pages, T.V networks, celebrity benefits and in political circles. Schnieder (1989) notes that in 1988, nature did more for the notoriety of global warming in 15 weeks than anyone else was able to do for the previous 15 years. How much of this warming is due to an increase in CO2 though and what the actual consequences will be is a debatable subject (Pearce,1995). Although climatic change is occuring, why it's occuring is not known for certain. Pearce (1995) argues though, that even if the science of global warming turns out to be incorrect, it is not worth the risk to do nothing about it. McKibben (1990) declares that to doubt that the warming will happen because it hasn't yet appeared is"... like arguing that a woman hasn't yet given birth and therefore isn't pregnant." (p.12).
As the 20th century draws to a close, a general awareness is spreading around the globe that human activity can and is causing serious damage to the environment. Slogans such as 'think locally,act globally' and 'the earth is one but the world is not' adhere to the principal that, everything is tied to everything else. Problems on land become problems at sea and in the environment. Humans now realise that it is they that pose the threat to the environment, rather than the environment being a threat to humanity. The danger is shining through the sky, with overwhelming evidence that the earths ozone layer is being destroyed by human-made chemicals far faster than any scientist had predicted. The threat is no longer just to the future, the threat is here and now.
REFRENCES
Brenton, T. (1994). The Greening of Machiavelli: The History of International Environmental Politics. Earthscan Publications, London.
Burton, I., Kates, R.W. and White,G.F. (1978). The Environment as Hazard. Oxford Uni. Press. New York..
Chapman, D.M. (1994). Natural Hazards. Oxford Uni. Press, New York.
Heathcote, R.L. (1979). The Threat from Natural Hazards In Australia in R.L. Heathcote and B.G. Thom (eds): Natural Hazards in Australia. 3-12, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra.
Kevies, D.J. (1992). Some Like it Hot. New York Review of Books. 39:31-39.
McCall, G.J.H. (1992). Natural and Man Made Hazards: Their Increasing Importance in the End 20th Century World in G.J.H.McCall, D.J.C.Laming and S.C.Scott (eds): Geohazards: Natural and Man Made. 1-4, Chapman and Hall, London.
McKibben,B. (1990). The End of Nature. Penguin, Middlesex.
Meyer, W.R. and Turner, B.L. (1995). The Earth Transformed: Trends, Trajectories and Patterns in R.J. Johnson, P.J. Taylor and M.J.Watts (eds): Geographies of Global Change. 302-317, Blackwell, Oxford.
Pearce, D. (1995). Blueprint 4: Capturing Environmental Value. Oxford Uni. Press, New York.
Perry,A.H. (1981). Environmental Hazards in the British Isles. Allen and Unwin. London.
Schnieder, S.H. (1989). Global Warming: Are We Entering The Greenhouse Century ?. Sierra Club Books, New York.
Stow, D.A.V. (1992). Preface in G.J.H.McCall, D.J.C.Laming and S.C.Scott (eds): Geohazards: Natural and Man Made. i-ii, Chapman and Hall, London.
Suzuki,D. and Gordon, A. (1990). It's a Matter of Survival. Harvard Uni Press, Harvard.
Natural hazards have been defined as "...extreme geophysical events greatly exceeding normal human expectations in terms of their magnitude or frequency and causing significant damage to man and his works with possible loss of life." (Heathcote,1979,p.3.). A natural hazard occurs when there is an interaction between a system of human resource management and extreme or rare natural phenomena (Chapman,1994). As McCall, Laming and Scott (1991) argue, strictly speaking there is no hazard unless humans are affected in some way. Yet the line between natural and human-made hazards is a finely drawn one and usually overlapping. Doornkamp ( cited in McCall et al, 1992) argues that many hazards are human induced or at least made worse by the intervention of humans.
In the 1970's, natural hazards were an important subject of topical study, as the nature of their impact on human populations and what they valued was increasing in frequency at quite a rapid rate (Burton, Kates, White, 1978). During the 75 years after 1900 the population of the earth increased by a staggering 2.25 billion people. People who needed land on which to live and work. As the population rose people were dispersed in more places and in larger numbers than before. The predominant movement of people being from farm to town or city (Burton et al,1978.). It is this growing world population, Burton et al (1978) suggest, that is the main reason behind why hazards are increasing and were seen to pose such a threat to humankind in the 70's. While the average number of disasters remained relatively constant at about 30 per year, death rates climbed significantly.
As the growing world population requires the cultivation of land more prone to hazards, more people and property are thus exposed to the risk of disaster than ever before, and as Stow (1992) argues, the death toll inevitably rises. An example that shows the concern that humans faced from the environment can be exemplified by the Bangladesh cyclone of 1970, which killed approximately 250,000 people. Although part of the reason for so many deaths can be put down to a then poorly understood process, land-use can also be implicated. Because of a rising population, land in Bangladesh was reclaimed by the government and held against the sea. People in large numbers were then encouraged to occupy the area. An area which turned out to be one of great risk. Major disruption was inevitable Burton et al (1978) argue whenever population was in the path of such forces. Had reasonable measures been taken in advance of the storm, the material damage, loss of life and social dislocation could have been seriously reduced.
In the 1990's we live in an information age. Today we have remarkable monitoring and predictive capabilities for natural hazards. The use of advanced telecommunications and emergency management, together with the exploitation of geographic information systems in hazard mitigation has greatly reduced the extent to which natural hazards are seen as a threat to people in the 90's (Chapman et al, 1994). Loss of life and property from natural disasters continue to rise though as the population of the world rises and puts more demands on the environment for land resources. White (1974) argues that environmental risk may be considered to be primarily a function of the value systems of a society. How dangerous a natural hazard is, is not measured in absolute terms but in how dangerous it is perceived to be. 20 years ago, technology hadn't advanced to the level at which natural hazards could be properly understood and prepared for (Perry,1981). Chapman (1994) argues that in technologically advanced societies we have "...greatly accepted the hazards inherent in the comforts of life that technology provides and learned to live with hazards." (p.156).In the 1970's, using Heathcote's (1979) definition, "normal human expectations" were lower than they are today therefore causing such concern for the environmental threat to humans.
20 years ago it was the spectacular, rapid onset, intensive hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes, cyclones and floods that caught the media headlines and caused concern for the future of humankind from the environment. Today it is the slow onset, pervasive hazards that have caught the attention of the whole world, and in the long term pose more threat than the intensive hazards (Chapman,1994). Space exploration has given us an awareness that it is human activity that is contributing to this long term threat and the future of the planet as a whole (McCall,1992).
It has been suggested that when the history of the 20th century is written, environmentalism will be judged to be the single most important social movement of the period (Brenton,1994). While the threat from humans to the environment has been an issue for some time, the conflict has been sharpened by the emergence of new concerns; ozone depletion, global warming, loss of biological diversity and the destruction of the rainforests. Prior to the late 20th century the main insults to the environment were evident, people could see smog and pollution and notice animals missing from the forests. These new issues involve a new type of danger to the environment (Suzuki,1990). Dangers which are much less visible and often will not materialise for years to come. It is primarily because of scientific predictions that we know about them and without science would have probably gone largely unrecognised until it was too late for action to be taken (McKibben,1989). These new dangers are ones that can be measured and enumerated by scientists. The belief that the earth has been seriously damaged and is being damaged more rapidly than ever before is a far more prevalent and respectable belief than ever before. It is a belief that is growing in popularity (Meyer and Turner,1995). Johnson, Tayor and Watts (1995) point out that:
"... increasingly the assumption that the earth is being
improved requires a defence and an explanation, while
the assumption that it is being dangerously degraded
requires none." (p.304).
Coping with global environmental change has come to appear one of humankinds most pressing problems.
Perhaps the most powerful representative of this new 'global consciousness' has been as Brenton (1994) suggests, the 'Earthrise' photograph taken by the Apollo II in 1969. As people are able to see the earth as a whole for the first time, they are also able to see more clearly that which ecologists have always stated, that everything on the earth is tied to everything else (Pearce,1995). Since it's capture , the 'earthrise' photograph has been extensively exploited by exponents of the 'fragile planet' view of the human experience. Between 1970 and 1990 global population rose from 3.7 billion to approximately 5.3 billion people. Energy consumption grew even faster, while nuclear production of electricity rose twentyfold. The number of vehicles more than doubled and by the early 1990's people were consuming about 40% of the entire global 'natural product' from the photosynthesis of plants (Brenton,1994). Tropical rainforests have been devastated and the productivity of more than 1.2 million hectares of land has been lowered by human activities. 20% of the CO2 in the atmosphere has been put there by humans, largely through C.F.C production, and it has been C.F.C's that have created one of the most disturbing changes to the environment, that of the discovery of the hole in the ozone layer and the theory of global warming (McKibben,1987).
Ozone is a molecule of oxygen, made up of three oxygen atoms and it's existence is essential for many life supporting systems. Ozone occurs at two levels in the atmosphere; the stratosphere and the troposphere. In the stratosphere it is concentrated into the 'ozone layer', and it is this concentration that protects the earth from U.V radiation from the sun, taking out 90% of U.V rays. It's depletion was first recognised in 1985, when a gaping hole was found over Antarctica. By 1989 it became clear that C.F.C's and halons were indisputably implicated in the collapse over Antarctica, that ozone had diminished over heavily populated areas of the world and that further significant depletion would occur if extreme action was not taken to stop ozone-depleting substances (Kevies,1992).
Apprehension of global warming on the other hand, rests on the theory that high concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere trap radiation reflected from the earth, creating a 'greenhouse effect'. This then leads to an increase in temperature in the region close to the planets surface. The current attention given to the climatic impacts of CO2 owes much to the weather of the 1980's (Schnieder,1989). The 80's were already the warmest on record, when the hot spring and summer of 1988 came along, bringing with it drought, crop disasters and fire hazards. Suddenly the 'greenhouse effect' was given major consideration by Press front pages, T.V networks, celebrity benefits and in political circles. Schnieder (1989) notes that in 1988, nature did more for the notoriety of global warming in 15 weeks than anyone else was able to do for the previous 15 years. How much of this warming is due to an increase in CO2 though and what the actual consequences will be is a debatable subject (Pearce,1995). Although climatic change is occuring, why it's occuring is not known for certain. Pearce (1995) argues though, that even if the science of global warming turns out to be incorrect, it is not worth the risk to do nothing about it. McKibben (1990) declares that to doubt that the warming will happen because it hasn't yet appeared is"... like arguing that a woman hasn't yet given birth and therefore isn't pregnant." (p.12).
As the 20th century draws to a close, a general awareness is spreading around the globe that human activity can and is causing serious damage to the environment. Slogans such as 'think locally,act globally' and 'the earth is one but the world is not' adhere to the principal that, everything is tied to everything else. Problems on land become problems at sea and in the environment. Humans now realise that it is they that pose the threat to the environment, rather than the environment being a threat to humanity. The danger is shining through the sky, with overwhelming evidence that the earths ozone layer is being destroyed by human-made chemicals far faster than any scientist had predicted. The threat is no longer just to the future, the threat is here and now.
REFRENCES
Brenton, T. (1994). The Greening of Machiavelli: The History of International Environmental Politics. Earthscan Publications, London.
Burton, I., Kates, R.W. and White,G.F. (1978). The Environment as Hazard. Oxford Uni. Press. New York..
Chapman, D.M. (1994). Natural Hazards. Oxford Uni. Press, New York.
Heathcote, R.L. (1979). The Threat from Natural Hazards In Australia in R.L. Heathcote and B.G. Thom (eds): Natural Hazards in Australia. 3-12, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra.
Kevies, D.J. (1992). Some Like it Hot. New York Review of Books. 39:31-39.
McCall, G.J.H. (1992). Natural and Man Made Hazards: Their Increasing Importance in the End 20th Century World in G.J.H.McCall, D.J.C.Laming and S.C.Scott (eds): Geohazards: Natural and Man Made. 1-4, Chapman and Hall, London.
McKibben,B. (1990). The End of Nature. Penguin, Middlesex.
Meyer, W.R. and Turner, B.L. (1995). The Earth Transformed: Trends, Trajectories and Patterns in R.J. Johnson, P.J. Taylor and M.J.Watts (eds): Geographies of Global Change. 302-317, Blackwell, Oxford.
Pearce, D. (1995). Blueprint 4: Capturing Environmental Value. Oxford Uni. Press, New York.
Perry,A.H. (1981). Environmental Hazards in the British Isles. Allen and Unwin. London.
Schnieder, S.H. (1989). Global Warming: Are We Entering The Greenhouse Century ?. Sierra Club Books, New York.
Stow, D.A.V. (1992). Preface in G.J.H.McCall, D.J.C.Laming and S.C.Scott (eds): Geohazards: Natural and Man Made. i-ii, Chapman and Hall, London.
Suzuki,D. and Gordon, A. (1990). It's a Matter of Survival. Harvard Uni Press, Harvard.
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